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		<title>PLATAFORMAS COSTA AFUERA</title>
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		<pubDate>Thu, 01 Nov 2018 20:59:26 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Matthew Hamerman]]></dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Unclassified]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[Por Marc de Man INTRODUCCION El petróleo y gas natural offshore son extraídos en cantidades importantes en varias partes del mundo.  Solamente hay que ver la prosperidad económica de un pequeño país como Noruega para observar el resultado de su actividad offshore. En Canadá, la actividad offshore está en un estado embriónico, aunque se extrae...]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p style="text-align: center;"><b>Por Marc de Man</b></p>
<p><strong>INTRODUCCION</strong></p>
<p>El petróleo y gas natural offshore son extraídos en cantidades importantes en varias partes del mundo.  Solamente hay que ver la prosperidad económica de un pequeño país como Noruega para observar el resultado de su actividad offshore.</p>
<p>En Canadá, la actividad offshore está en un estado embriónico, aunque se extrae offshore en el Ártico canadiense, en sus costas del Oeste y en las costas del Este del país.</p>
<p>La exploración y explotación de gas natural y petróleo offshore tiene su propio régimen legal que, aunque en varios sectores se aproxima y adopta la ley marítima tradicional que tiene sus propias características.</p>
<p>Por ejemplo, la ley canadiense, que se ha codificado de la misma manera que la ley venezolana por el <em>Marine Liability Act de 2001</em> [S.C. 2001, Ch. 6 s. 3] excluye la actividad de energía offshore de algunos aspectos de responsabilidad y compensación en casos de contaminación por petróleo.</p>
<p>Además, el <em>Canada Shipping Act</em>, en sus artículos 166, 186(2) y 120(2) presenta prerrequisitos esenciales en relación con las operaciones energéticas offshore.</p>
<p>Cuando en Canadá se presentan dudas relacionadas con el sector de energía offshore, hay que consultar y basarse sobre leyes canadienses específicas como el:</p>
<p><em>Canada Oil and Gas Operations Act</em> &#8211; R.S.C. 1985, Ch. 0-7;</p>
<p><em>Canada Oil and Gas Drilling Regulations</em> &#8211; S.O.R./79-82;</p>
<p><em>Canada Oil and Gas Production and Conservation Regulations</em> &#8211; S.O.R./90-971.</p>
<p>Además, hay que consultar leyes entre Canadá y sus provincias tal como el:</p>
<p><em>&#8211; Canada-Nova Scotia Offshore Petroleum Resources Accord Implementation Act</em></p>
<p><em>                        S.C. 1988, Ch. 28, o</em></p>
<p><em>&#8211; Canada-Newfoundland Atlantic Accord Implementation Act</em></p>
<p><em>                        </em><em>R.S.N. 1990, Ch. C-2 y los reglamentos correspondientes.</em></p>
<p><strong><u>CARACTERISTICAS FISICAS</u></strong></p>
<p>A nivel practico y físico, la exploración y producción de petróleo y gas natural en las regiones offshore del Norte Atlántico es mucho más complicada que la exploración y producción de petróleo y gas natural sobre la tierra (inshore).  Las infraestructuras offshore tienen necesariamente que ser adaptadas a condiciones climáticas extremas, hielo, aguas profundas removidas por tempestades.  Al mismo tiempo, dependiendo de sus dimensiones, las plataformas petrolíferas tienen que acomodar entre 25 a 200 trabajadores durante a veces periodos de tres semanas con un cierto nivel razonable de comodidad.  Además, estas instalaciones necesitan una serie de equipamientos de control y comunicaciones, de anclaje o posicionamiento, grúas, generadores, salvavidas, equipos para prevenir y apagar incendios, apoyo de helicópteros, almacenamiento y gestión de desechos humanos.</p>
<p><strong><em><u>LAS OPERACIONES OFFSHORE</u></em></strong></p>
<p><strong><em>           </em></strong><strong><em><u>ETAPA PRELIMINAR</u></em></strong></p>
<p>Antes de todo, la empresa explotadora de petróleo y gas natural tiene que obtener los consentimientos de los gobiernos involucrados, que sean al nivel del gobierno federal o provincial.  Una vez obtenida esta aprobación, la empresa petrolera que puede ser Exxon Mobil, Shell, o BP, etc. perfora tres tipos de pozos</p>
<p>a) Pozos de exploración;</p>
<p>b) Pozos de delineación;</p>
<p>c) Pozos de desarrollo.</p>
<p>Dependiendo de la profundidad del pozo y las condiciones de perforación, cualquiera de estos pozos puede tomar hasta seis meses para ser explotados, siempre a un costo de inversión muy alto.</p>
<p>Si describimos los pozos de exploración, estos son perforados simplemente para confirmar si las formaciones geológicas ya identificadas por datos sísmicos contienen hidrocarbonos.</p>
<p>Una vez establecida la presencia de hidrocarbonos se pasa a la etapa de perforación de pozos de delineación en diferentes áreas de la formación geológica para confirmar su dimensión y determinar la naturaleza o características de la riqueza de hidrocarbonos.  Esta etapa establece si es atractivo a nivel económico desarrollar el área explorada.</p>
<p>Si la información derivada de esta segunda etapa, la etapa de delineación es favorable, la empresa petrolífera empieza a perforar un pozo de desarrollo.  Estamos ya en la tercera etapa.  Esto es lo preliminar para llegar a la producción.</p>
<p>En estas tres etapas, se pueden utilizar tres tipos de plataformas.  Hay que considerar que los sistemas de perforación offshore son extremadamente complejos y caros, y aunque desarrollados de sistemas de extracción de petróleo crudo en tierra, utilizados ya por más de un siglo, los sistemas modernos se optimizan y modifican constantemente.</p>
<p>Los tres tipos de plataformas utilizadas para estas tres etapas son:</p>
<ol>
<li>Las plataformas “jack-up”, utilizadas en aguas poco profundas, hasta cien metros de profundidad. Son habitualmente en forma de barcaza triangular o rectangular y remolcadas a la región de perforación.  Una vez in situ, las tres o cuatro grandes piernas de la plataforma son hundidas en el agua hasta que establecen contacto con el fondo del mar.  La parte barcaza es levantada con un gato a la altura deseada para asegurar una distancia segura de la superficie del mar.</li>
</ol>
<ol start="2">
<li>Las plataformas semi-sumergibles, plataformas enormes, utilizadas en profundidades de mar entre setenta y mil metros, donde se amarran con sistemas de anclas, y si la profundidad del mar es de más de 1000 metros, se amarran con un sistema de posicionamiento dinámico. Estas plataformas pueden ser remolcadas al sitio o pueden ser capaces de trasladarse con su propia propulsión.  La plataforma que opera es sostenida por una serie de columnas verticales que se asientan sobre dos o más pontones de acero que flotan debajo de la superficie del mar durante las operaciones de perforación.  La plataforma puede ser subida o bajada ajustando la cantidad de agua de lastre en los pontones.  Hay dos métodos que son utilizados para guardar este tipo de plataforma en su lugar.  En profundidades de agua hasta 1800 metros, barcos de apoyo instalan una serie de grandes anclas sobre cables de acero pesados.  Estas anclas y cables pueden extenderse hasta un kilómetro de la plataforma.  Tornos (winches) especiales mantienen la tensión de los cables.  En aguas más profundas se utilizan sistemas de posición dinámica en vez de anclas.</li>
</ol>
<p>3)         Los barcos perforadores (Drill ships) son unidades de perforación más movibles, y operan en profundidades de mar entre 200 y mil metros, utilizando un sistema de anclas, y si en aguas más profundas de mil metros utilizando un sistema de posición dinámica.  Son básicamente grandes barcos instalados con un sistema completo de perforación.  Son particularmente útiles en áreas lejanas puesto que necesitan un apoyo limitado.  La perforación se efectúa por medio de una gran apertura al fondo del casco, que se llama “the moon pool” (La piscina de la luna).</p>
<p>Durante estas etapas de perforación y producción, la industria de energía offshore utiliza un sistema de apoyo considerable.  Esto incluye el mantenimiento de la plataforma, barcos que están en “stand-by”, barcos que transportan a la tripulación o trabajadores, evacuación de emergencia, barcos que disponen de desechos humanos, barcos remolcadores, barcos que manipulan anclas y cables, helicópteros y unidades flotantes de almacenamiento.</p>
<p>Estos sistemas de apoyo son exigidos a nivel legal, basado sobre la legislación aplicable offshore y por los arreglos de licencias o autorizaciones otorgadas por el estado costero.</p>
<p><strong><em><u>ETAPA DE PRODUCCIÓN</u></em></strong></p>
<p>Una vez desarrollado el pozo offshore la etapa de producción empieza.</p>
<p>Los sistemas de producción de petróleo y gas natural tienen en común las siguientes funciones de base, aunque con variantes:</p>
<p>a) perforación y mantenimiento de pozos utilizados para producir petróleo y gas y, cuando es necesario, inyección de agua, productos químicos y posiblemente gas de regreso a la formación.</p>
<p>b) segregación y separación de la mezcla de petróleo y gas, y posibles residuos de agua y arena de los hidrocarbonos.</p>
<p>c) almacenamiento de los hidrocarbonos líquidos producidos para transportarlos ulteriormente a mercados, o a un terminal de transbordo.</p>
<p>d) acumulación, almacenamiento y transporte de barros de perforación y otros escombros y chorros, del lugar de perforación, y</p>
<p>e) acumulación y tratamiento de gas y gas natural líquido, enviándolo por gasoducto debajo del mar a la orilla. Si el tratamiento no se efectúa offshore, el gas crudo y los líquidos crudos son enviados por gasoducto para tratamiento a instalaciones basadas en la orilla del mar.</p>
<p>Estas funciones pueden ser combinadas en una sola estructura, o efectuadas en instalaciones separadas y/o en localidades separadas.  El petróleo crudo puede ser almacenado en tanques en la instalación de producción, o puede ser transportado por oleoducto a un tanquero a una proximidad cerca para almacenamiento.</p>
<p>Aunque hay varias instalaciones de producción offshore, están compuestas de dos estructuras separadas:</p>
<p>-La plataforma que soporta las instalaciones superiores.  La plataforma puede flotar o puede estar sentada sobre el fondo del mar con silos de almacenamiento para el petróleo crudo, y</p>
<p>-Las instalaciones superiores (topsides) donde se encuentran las funciones operacionales y de apoyo para las operaciones de producción.</p>
<p>En general, se pueden utilizar en la producción de energía offshore tres tipos diferentes de instalaciones de producción:</p>
<p>-Estructura anclada con piernas llamada “jacket”, flotada por barcaza al sitio deseado.  Las piernas de hierro o concreto se bajan al fondo del mar en una posición derecha y ancladas al fondo con acero clavado en el fondo del mar.</p>
<p>-Estructura basada sobre gravitación que consiste en una muy grande estructura construida con cemento armado flotando en posición y llenado de lastre.  Se instala en una base ya preparada al fondo del mar.  Los tanques a la base de la estructura son utilizados para almacenar el petróleo antes de enviarlo a la orilla.</p>
<p>-Finalmente, el sistema de Descarga y Almacenamiento de Producción Flotante (Floating Production and Offloading System) o FPSO.  El FPSO utiliza una embarcación en forma de barco con doble casco que contiene la producción, almacenamiento de petróleo y capacidad de transbordo.  Esta embarcación es conectada a los pozos de producción por una torreta interna que es anclada en posición.  La embarcación así gira alrededor de la torreta adaptándose a los vientos locales, corrientes y condiciones de olas.  La torreta es diseñada para poder ser desconectada con seguridad de la embarcación FPSO.</p>
<p><strong><u>SITUACIÓN JURIDICA</u></strong></p>
<p>Esta breve descripción de las operaciones offshore ilustra su importancia, complejidad y vulnerabilidad.  Las estructuras offshore son trasladadas y operan en áreas navegables, que sean nacionales o internacionales y pueden ser involucradas en accidentes marinos, similares a los que involucran a naves normales, tal como, abordajes, contaminación, encallamiento, perdida de vida, o daños físicos a la persona.  En este contexto, la primera pregunta que surge es: ¿Son estas estructuras “barcos” o “buques” (ships) o embarcaciones (vessels)?</p>
<p>Muchas de estas estructuras flotan, y pueden ser trasladadas con su propia propulsión, y en muchos casos, se parecen a barcos, pero son diseñados para operaciones que son muy diferentes de los barcos normales.  Algunas de estas estructuras están fijadas firmemente al fondo del mar, y se pueden clasificar como islas artificiales en vez de barcos, pero también muchas no están firmemente fijadas y se pueden trasladar de un lugar al otro.</p>
<p>La legislación canadiense (el <em>Canada Shipping Act</em>) al definir el término “barco” o “buque” (ship) incluye toda descripción de embarcación utilizada en navegación y no propulsada por remos.  La Corte Federal de Apelación canadiense ha decidido que una grúa flotante utilizada en un puerto, sin propulsión propia e incapaz de navegación es un “barco” o “buque” (ship).  Esta es una interpretación muy amplia e indica que todas las estructuras costa afuera serian consideradas como “barcos” o “buques” (ships). Hay otra decisión canadiense que decidió que estas estructuras son solamente barcos o buques (ships) cuando están flotando, o están trasladadas, pero no cuando están ancladas o fijadas en operaciones offshore.  La situación no es clara, que sea por legislación internacional, nacional o por jurisprudencia.  Esto significa por lo menos que las estructuras offshore que no son permanentemente fijadas al fondo del mar son “barcos” o “buques” (ships), y sujetas al derecho marítimo tradicional.</p>
<p>Las instalaciones offshore son registradas como buques, son clasificadas, pueden ser hipotecadas, y necesitan seguro marítimo, seguro de casco y P &amp; I (protection and indemnity), contratan tripulación, son sujetas a inspecciones y tienen que obedecer a varias convenciones marítimas internacionales.</p>
<p>En la decisión de la Corte Federal de Canadá de <em>Seafarers’ International Union of Canada v. Crosbie Offshore Services Ltd.</em> [1982] 2 F.C. 855, la corte declaro que la plataforma de perforación petrolífera es también un “barco” o “buque” (ship).  Estas plataformas eran embarcaciones posicionadas de manera dinámica, tenían su propia propulsión, pero remolcadas a su lugar de perforación.  En aguas profundas estas plataformas estaban ancladas con la asistencia de barcos de apoyo.</p>
<p>En la decisión de <em>Bow Valley Husky (Bermuda) Ltd. v. Saint John Shipbuilding Ltd.</em> (1995) 126 D.L.R. (4<sup>th</sup>) 1, la corte de apelación canadiense considero que la plataforma de perforación petrolífera Bow Drill III es una embarcación navegable, capaz de propulsión propia, aunque cuando perforando, vulnerable a los peligros del mar, no permanentemente fijada al fondo del mar, y capaz de viajar en el mundo entero para perforar y obtener petróleo.  La Corte Suprema de Canadá se enfocó sobre la actividad del Bow Drill III en aguas navegables.  Como puedan constatar, muchas de las actividades de plataformas petrolíferas costa afuera son consideradas de naturaleza marítima en un contexto moderno de navegación y transporte marítimo por las cortes canadienses.</p>
<p>Como penúltimo tema, les presento la situación de las plataformas offshore en relación a convenciones internacionales.</p>
<ol>
<li><em>La Convención de Salvamento</em> de 1989 excluye las unidades de perforación y plataformas offshore. Esta convención no se aplica a plataformas fijas o flotantes o a unidades de perforación movibles offshore cuando estas están en su localidad dedicadas a la exploración, explotación o producción de riquezas minerales en el fondo del mar (1989 Convención de Salvamento, articulo 3).  Esta exclusión solamente se aplica a las estructuras, que están en su localidad y dedicadas a la exploración, explotación o producción de la riqueza mineral al fondo del mar.  Esto significa que, si la estructura se está trasladando, esperando instrucciones, o en el proceso de reparaciones, o siendo suministrada, seria sujeto apropiado de salvamento.</li>
</ol>
<ol start="2">
<li><em>La Convención de Responsabilidad Civil por daños causados por contaminación de petróleo (CLC Convention de 1969 el Protocolo de 1991 y el Fondo)</em> no se aplican a los derrames de petróleo si la embarcación es estacionaria o anclada. Solamente si hay movimiento de petróleo para ser descargado a otro lugar que se permite la aplicación del CLC Protocolo 1992.</li>
</ol>
<p>En realidad, no hay ningún instrumento internacional que cubra la responsabilidad y compensación por daños que surgen de operaciones offshore.  Este aspecto es dejado a los arreglos bilaterales entre el estado costero, donde las operaciones offshore se realizan, y la empresa petrolífera que tiene la intención de efectuar el trabajo.  En este sentido, los estados costeros que permiten operaciones offshore han desarrollado legislación nacional y reglamentos operacionales que cubren todos los aspectos de exploración y explotación offshore.  En muchos casos, los operadores offshore serán enfrentados con el prospecto de responsabilidades significativas en caso de accidente.  Estas responsabilidades serán cubiertas por pólizas de seguro de P &amp; I (protección e indemnización).  Estados costeros, como Canadá, exigen protección financiera adecuada contra accidentes.  Además, el contratante offshore tendrá que presentar garantías financieras que las instalaciones offshore serán trasladadas una vez las operaciones terminadas.  Las instalaciones offshore abandonadas constituyen un riesgo para la navegación y el medio ambiente.</p>
<ol start="3">
<li><em>La Convención sobre la Limitación de Responsabilidad por reclamos marítimos</em> [LLMC 1976] no se aplica a barcos construidos o adaptados o dedicados a perforación. En el caso de desarrollo offshore en el Atlántico canadiense, la responsabilidad civil por daños que surgen de operaciones de petróleo y gas offshore surge del common law, la ley estatutaria y contrato.  En la Provincia de Nova Scotia se impone una responsabilidad estricta de 30 millones de dólares, pero si se demuestra falta o negligencia, la responsabilidad es ilimitada.</li>
</ol>
<ol start="4">
<li><em>El Protocolo para la supresión de Actos ilegales contra la seguridad de Plataformas fijas situadas en el shelf continental de 1988</em>, que hace partes de la Convención para la supresión de actos ilegales contra la seguridad de navegación marítima de 1988, establece un régimen aplicable a actos criminales contra instalaciones fijas costa afuera. Los países que han ratificado la Convención deben tomar las medidas necesarias para establecer jurisdicción para tratar con los actos ilegales internaciones, inclusive juicio y castigo, y en casos apropiados, extradición.  Este Protocolo es muy importante desde el 11 de septiembre, 2001, que nos ilustro la vulnerabilidad global a actos terroristas.  Imagínense el desastre que podrían infligir los terroristas a una plataforma petrolífera offshore.</li>
</ol>
<p>El código ISPS se aplica a plataformas offshore.  La plataforma tiene que obtener el certificado en conformidad con el código ISPS.</p>
<ol start="5">
<li>A nivel procesal, la ley procesal canadiense dictada por la Corte Federal de Canadá permite la emisión de acciones “in rem”. Canadá tiene jurisdicción sobre el mar territorial, y también en su zona económica exclusiva que se extiende a 200 millas de la costa.  La notificación de un “warrant of arrest in rem” a una plataforma offshore en estas regiones es permitida, particularmente cuando el operador tiene una licencia canadiense para ejercer su actividad.</li>
</ol>
<p><strong><u>CONCLUSION</u></strong></p>
<p>A nivel de seguridad marítima, es claro que la operación de instalaciones de alta complejidad en el medio ambiente marítimo, con variantes meteorológicas, y condiciones en alta mar, tiene una cantidad de riesgos inherentes.  Además, hay un peligro potencial cuando se perfora petróleo y gas natural, que invariablemente se encuentran en condiciones de alta presión.  La seguridad es un aspecto de alta prioridad para las empresas de energía, los operadores offshore y los contratistas de perforación.  Los accidentes que ocurren afectan perdidas de vida, daños físicos a la persona, y causan considerable contaminación.  En los últimos años, los mayores accidentes offshore son el del “Ocean Ranger” en la costa este de Canadá, el “Sea Gem” en la costa del Reino Unido, el “Ixtoc I” en Mexico.</p>
<p>No hay una convención internacional que se aplica a las actividades offshore.  El IMO complet, el Código MODU (Code for the Construction and Equipment of Mobile Offshore Drilling Units) en 1989 que ofrece recomendaciones de base sobre criterios de diseño y calidad de construcción para unidades de perforación movibles offshore.</p>
<p>Pero el problema con el código MODU es que ofrece un marco operacional, internacional muy básico.  Los estados individuales promulgan y hacen cumplir sus propias legislaciones offshore.  Esto resulta en la creación de una muy amplia variedad de regímenes offshore creados por los estados.  En la mayoría de los casos, existe un tipo de legislación offshore y cuando operaciones offshore son planificadas o se realizan, el estado costero y el operador offshore firman un acuerdo bilateral cubriendo una actividad especifica.  Aunque esto ha creado una cierta incertidumbre, especialmente cuando surgen problemas legales, esta situación funciona razonablemente bien por un cierto tiempo.  Sin embargo, hay una preocupación fundamental sobre la falta de un régimen internacional extenso cuando accidentes mayores ocurren, incrementados por el hecho que los operadores offshore y las compañías de petróleo casi nunca operan en los límites de las áreas costeras de un solo estado.  La actividad offshore es muy a menudo internacional, que implica empresas, operadores, y tripulaciones multinacionales.  Si hay reglas nacionales sobre seguros, función y operaciones de Unidades de Perforación movibles offshore, podemos anticipar problemas.  Las plataformas offshore son híbridos legales que tendrían eventualmente que tener un régimen legal internacional uniforme, con algunos aspectos basados sobre el derecho marítimo tradicional.</p>
<p>Se complica la situación por el hecho que las leyes nacionales de muchos de los estados costeros no se aplican pasado las fronteras nacionales, excepto por legislación explicita para el propósito especifico de regulación de riquezas naturales offshore.  Los estados costeros tienen que proporcionar el régimen legal necesario en la ausencia del derecho internacional.</p>
<p>El sistema regulatorio para actividades offshore por ejemplo en la costa este de Canadá es extremadamente complejo, por varias razones.  El gobierno canadiense federal tiene la principal responsabilidad por las actividades offshore.  Hay también la jurisdicción provincial, y problemas de fronteras marítimas al nivel internacional y nacional.</p>
<p>Por ejemplo, en la provincia de Nava Scotia, hay aproximadamente 400,000 kilómetros cuadrados debajo la jurisdicción de esta provincia.  Esta área es administrada por el Canada-Nova Scotia Offshore Petroleum Board, que regula todas las actividades de energía offshore en Nova Scotia.  En un momento dado el estado federal y la provincia abdicaron sus respectivas pretensiones de jurisdicción, y con un acuerdo establecieron una legislación espejo para la gestión combinada de las riquezas offshore.</p>
<p>Hasta que no haya una convención internacional global específicamente dedicada a las plataformas offshore, tendremos que vivir con las particularidades creadas por legislaciones de estados costeros y sus propias características.</p>
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		<title>CAVEATS IN CANADIAN MARITIME LAW</title>
		<link>https://demanpillet.com/en/caveats-in-canadian-maritime-law/</link>
		<comments>https://demanpillet.com/en/caveats-in-canadian-maritime-law/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Thu, 01 Nov 2018 20:33:25 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Matthew Hamerman]]></dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Unclassified]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://demanpillet.com/en/?p=1290</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[By Marc de Man and Vanessa Major Ladies, gentlemen, colleagues: Although I see some familiar faces across the room, I feel I should properly introduce myself. My name is Marc de Man, and I am a freshly minted junior associate at De Man, Pillet. Our law firm, situated in Montreal, Quebec, Canada is a leading...]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p style="text-align: center;"><b>By Marc de Man</b></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><strong>and</strong></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><b>Vanessa Major</b></p>
<p>Ladies, gentlemen, colleagues:</p>
<p>Although I see some familiar faces across the room, I feel I should properly introduce myself. My name is Marc de Man, and I am a freshly minted junior associate at De Man, Pillet. Our law firm, situated in Montreal, Quebec, Canada is a leading transportation and maritime law practice in Canada.</p>
<p>Today I have the pleasure of conducting before you a presentation on a topic that is both obscure yet quite powerful in its effects.</p>
<p>The beast is called the Caveat.</p>
<p>I can already glean over some puzzled looks in the room.</p>
<p>Caveats? What are they? Some of you will say “I’ve never heard of them before and surely, they must not be all that useful!”</p>
<p>Fear not, for if I am successful in my aim, then hopefully, through my presentation, I will manage to make you appreciate the usefulness of the Caveat.</p>
<p>It is likely my fellow Commonwealth colleagues will be more familiar with Caveats, but even so, I believe caveats remain a largely unknown and uncommonly used procedural tool in the Common lawyer’s arsenal.</p>
<p>Indeed, the caveat can be a very useful tool for shipowners and cargo interests alike.</p>
<p>In fact, caveats can be of use to all claimants who benefit from a right in rem; be they claims arising out of a contract for the repair of a ship, for damage to goods, for towage, for unpaid wages or for necessaries, to name but a few examples.</p>
<p>Essentially, Caveats are a peculiar process of limited, but in some cases significant utility.</p>
<p>A good place to start, I think, would be to examine the origin of the very word Caveat as this, in and of itself, will elucidate much of the Caveat’s purpose.</p>
<p>Caveat, like many words in our noble profession, is, of course, a latin word. It means, literally: “let him, or her, beware”. It is, plainly said, a warning.</p>
<p>In the time of Augustus Caesar, in the Roman Empire, you could be walking on the VIA FLAMINIA, and if a hole appeared in the road, there could be a sign which read “CAVEAT”.</p>
<p>Apart from Maritime Law for example, in the contract of sale, we see “<em>caveat emptor</em>” &#8211; buyer beware.</p>
<p>In the law of intellectual property, and more specifically, in patent law, a caveat is a way to preemptively register an invention before a more detailed patent could be filed.  This caveat is limited in time and it can expire if no patent is filed.</p>
<p>It is quite amazing to note how much Latin is used in our profession, in different areas of law.  I could present you with a plethora of Latin expressions.  Restrictively, I could mention <em>mutatis, mutandis</em>, <em>volenti non fit injuria, res ipsa loquitur </em>(the thing speaks for itself) in tort law,<em> non adempleti contractus </em>in contract law, <em>pater familias </em>in family law, <em>contra proferentem </em>as a rule of interpretation.  In the garment industry, we use the expression <em>semper ubi sub ubi </em>(always wear underwear).</p>
<p>I suggest to you that Latin is by no means a dead language.  It is alive and kicking!!</p>
<p>More specifically to the topic at hand, the word Caveat refers to a notice or a warning to refrain from a particular action.</p>
<p>In the case of caveats as they apply to Canadian maritime law, they refer specifically to a notice that certain actions, such as arresting or releasing a ship, may not be taken without informing the person who gave the notice.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, the word Caveator, derived from Caveat, designates the person or the entity which has filed a Caveat.</p>
<p>There exist three types of Caveats in Canadian Maritime law.  However, in practice, only two of the three types of Caveats are used, with Caveat releases being the most common procedural tool of the three.</p>
<p>These three types of caveats are:</p>
<ul>
<li>The first, caveat <u>warrant</u>: which is a notice filed with the Federal Court for the purpose of <u>preventing the arrest of property </u></li>
<li><u> </u>The second, caveat <u>release</u>: which is a notice filed with the Federal Court for the purpose of <u>preventing the release of property </u>in respect of which an arrest warrant has been issued and served.</li>
<li>And finally, the <u>caveat payment</u>: which is used by a person who desires to prevent the payment of money out of court.</li>
</ul>
<p>For the most part, I shall focus on the two first types of Caveats; being the Caveat warrant and the caveat release.</p>
<p>Caveats are provided for in the Federal Courts’ Rules. Specifically, Rules 493 to 495. I will quickly gloss over the applicable Rules, and will then delve deeper into their implications.</p>
<p>The caveat warrant is a notice filed with the Court for the purpose of preventing the arrest of property.</p>
<p>It should be noted that the Federal Court of Canada has jurisdiction throughout the whole of Canada.  Before the Federal Court will issue an arrest warrant, a nationwide search for caveat warrants must be performed.</p>
<p>If a caveat warrant is on file, the warrant of arrest will not be issued against the Vessel.</p>
<p>However, this does not mean that the claimant against the Ship has lost its recourse altogether. Otherwise, it would be much too easy for shipowners to dodge arrests!  Cunning shipowners would simply lodge caveat warrants for all of their Ships in order to avoid any possible arrests.</p>
<p>Fortunately, the Rules provide for some protection from such manoeuvres.</p>
<p>Indeed, the Shipowner filing a caveat warrant must either provide bail, or pay into court, the amount of money set out in the caveat warrant.</p>
<p>You see here how the caveat is a very useful tool for shipowners who may be aware of potential claims and who wish to protect themselves from ship arrests.</p>
<p>In practice however, caveat warrants are not all that common in Canada for the simple reason that the Shipowner is still required to post bail. This may be seen as an admission of liablity and could explain why shipowners do not, as a matter of habit, register caveat warrants.</p>
<p>Moreover, it is important to note that caveat warrants are not bulletproof against arrests.</p>
<p>In fact, the caveat warrant does not actually prevent the issuance of a warrant of arrest.</p>
<p>Rather, pursuant to 494 FCR, it renders the arresting party liable in “all costs and damages” unless he can show to the satisfaction of the Court “good and sufficient” reason for arresting the res while the caveat warrant was outstanding.</p>
<p>A caveat release prevents the release of a ship in respect of which an arrest warrant has been issued and served. Before a release will be issued for an arrested ship, a nationwide search for caveat releases is similarly performed by the Federal Court of Canada administrator.</p>
<p>Typically, if a caveat release is on file, the shipowner must either settle the claim in respect of which the caveat release was filed or make a private arrangement with the caveator for security for that claim, in order to obtain the caveator’s withdrawal of the caveat release.</p>
<p>The standard form of the caveat proceeding for caveat releases is quite minimalistic.</p>
<p>There are no allegations supporting the caveat. The amount claimed is not even specified! There is no need to annex or include a Statement of Claim. The simple act of filing this one-page proceeding will prevent an arrested Ship from being released!</p>
<p>Beyond this, the caveator is not yet a formal party to the action. It is in a sort of in between, no man’s land status… oddly not a party to the original arrest proceedings yet all at once piggy-backing on the arresting party’s arrest.</p>
<p>The Federal Court Rules only require that the caveat contain the following information:</p>
<ul>
<li>The designation of the caveator, name, place of business, etc.</li>
<li>The name of the arrested Ship</li>
<li>And address for service, usually the Solicitors’ contact details.</li>
</ul>
<p>With a precedent on hand, it can take a lawyer a few minutes to draft and complete the caveat.</p>
<p>However, the prudent lawyer must ensure that his client has a clear “caveatable” interest. Which is to say one that would allow the claimant to arrest the vessel had it not already been arrested.</p>
<p>The Caveat must be served on the Defendant parties and filed in Court.</p>
<p>As I have stated in my introduction, any claimant able to exercise a right in rem claim can avail itself of the caveat.</p>
<p>The withdrawal of Caveat proceeding is equally simple and bare in its form.</p>
<p>As stated, the notice of withdrawal of caveat release is provided for at Rule 495(4) of the Federal Courts Rules.</p>
<p>Lawyers and caveators alike should be mindful of the fact that filing a caveat release will not constitute the commencement of an action for the purposes of “stopping time running”. Indeed, only the service and filing of a Statement of Claim will actually ‘stop time’.</p>
<p>For that reason, caveators should be sure to stake out their claim formally by serving and filing a Statement of Claim without delay if they are made aware that their claim will not quickly be settled by the shipowner.</p>
<p>As I have stated, the arrest of a ship for which there is a caveat warrant may render the arresting party liable in all costs and damages unless it can be shown to the satisfaction of the Court that there was good reason for the arrest in spite of the caveat warrant.</p>
<p>A caveator who lodges a caveat without a caveatable interest may be liable for damages to a person who suffers a loss as a result.</p>
<p>Where caveat releases are concerned, the prerequisite is that a warrant of arrest must already have been filed and served for the Ship. In other words, the caveat is not an originating proceeding. The caveat piggy backs on the arresting party.</p>
<p>Interestingly, caveats bear much of the same impact and forceful effects as does the arrest, yet so little is required of the caveator in comparison to the arresting party, who must duly provide the basis of its claim in a detailed Statement of Claim and an Affidavit to Lead Warrant.</p>
<p>Also, pursuant to 495 (1) FCR, caveator should mark their calendar one year from the filing of the caveat as no caveat remains in force for more than a year following its entry into the Court register.</p>
<p>However, a caveator may file a new caveat following the expiration of the initial caveat. There are no limits set on the amounts of caveat renewals allowed.</p>
<ul>
<li><u> </u>Procedure is both extremely <u>expedient</u> and <u></u></li>
<li><u> </u>Caveats are very simple proceedings: the form is simple and <u>does not require extensive drafting</u>.</li>
<li>Can be filed in Court <u>within an hour </u>from the time we are made aware of the particulars of the claim</li>
<li>There is no <u>need to establish any evidence </u>of the claim</li>
<li>There is no <u>need to set out the factual basis </u>for the claim</li>
</ul>
<p>Now, some of you may find yourselves somewhat irked by the very idea of caveats as I have so far described them. There is indeed something which is bothersome about the idea of such a simple and unsubstantiated proceeding bearing such power as to prevent the release or the arrest of a Ship.</p>
<p>The fact that a proceeding which contains no allegations, no affidavits, no evidence can be so impactful comes as a sort of affront to our legal instincts.</p>
<p>That idea that you may prevent the release or the arrest of a ship without being required to minimally justify the grounds on which you stake your claim is completely contrary to the values which are so engrained in us as lawyers; values such as due process and procedural justice.</p>
<p>The rules and procedures adopted by the British in developing their maritime empire are to a large extent still used in Canada today when exercising its admiralty jurisdiction. You will quickly notice of course, that caveats exist in most jurisdiction of Common Law tradition, as imported from the United Kingdom. Caveats, much as they operate in Canada, exist in the following jurisdictions:</p>
<ul>
<li>UK</li>
<li>Australia</li>
<li>Bahamas</li>
<li>Ireland</li>
<li>New Zealand</li>
<li>Singapore</li>
<li>Kenya</li>
<li>Malaysia</li>
<li>Hong Kong</li>
<li>Nigeria</li>
<li>Cyprus</li>
<li>India</li>
</ul>
<p>There exists no caveat in the following important jurisdictions:</p>
<ul>
<li>USA</li>
<li>France</li>
<li>Spain</li>
<li>Italy</li>
<li>China</li>
<li>Japan</li>
</ul>
<p>Lastly, I will go over a few interesting legal issues and questions pertaining to caveats:</p>
<p>One aspect is the issue of submission to the Court’s jurisdiction. Does the act of lodging a caveat against arrest amount to the shipowner’s submission to the Court’s jurisdiction?</p>
<p>In theory, the Court’s Administrator is responsible for verifying the caveat register when tasked with the arrest or the release of a Ship.</p>
<p>However, it is still wise and prudent to request that the Administrator conduct a thorough search of the caveat register when one is preparing to release a vessel.</p>
<p>You can imagine how embarrassing it would be to realize that a caveat release is outstanding on a given Ship when one anticipates the release of that very Ship at a certain scheduled time.  the entire momentum of the release grinds to a halt on account of an outstanding caveat release!</p>
<p>In such cases, the consequence of not having properly checked the caveat register can be very onerous, not to mention embarrassing!</p>
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		<title>STRANGE DECISION PURSUANT TO A NORMAL ARREST</title>
		<link>https://demanpillet.com/en/strange-decision-pursuant-to-a-normal-arrest/</link>
		<comments>https://demanpillet.com/en/strange-decision-pursuant-to-a-normal-arrest/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Thu, 01 Nov 2018 20:12:38 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Matthew Hamerman]]></dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Unclassified]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://demanpillet.com/en/?p=1285</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[By Marc de Man &#160; REITER PETROLEUM INC. vs. THE SHIP “SAM HAWK” [2015] FCA 1005 THE SHIP &#8220;SAM HAWK&#8221; vs. REITER PETROLEUM INC. [2016] FCA FC 26 THE FACTS Allow me to present the facts. Reiter Petroleum Inc., a Canadian bunker trader, claimed it was not paid for bunkers supplied in Istanbul, Turkey to...]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p style="text-align: center;"><strong>By Marc de Man</strong></p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p>REITER PETROLEUM INC. vs. THE SHIP “SAM HAWK” [2015] FCA 1005</p>
<p>THE SHIP &#8220;SAM HAWK&#8221; vs. REITER PETROLEUM INC. [2016] FCA FC 26</p>
<p>THE FACTS</p>
<p>Allow me to present the facts.</p>
<p>Reiter Petroleum Inc., a Canadian bunker trader, claimed it was not paid for bunkers supplied in Istanbul, Turkey to the Ship “SAM HAWK”.</p>
<p>Reiter contracted with the Charterer of the Ship but contended that the Owners of the Ship had to pay for the bunkers supplied to the Ship.</p>
<p>Reiter arrested the Ship in Albany, Western Australia.</p>
<p>QUESTION TO BE DECIDED</p>
<p>Reiter claimed that both Canadian and US law applied as per its Terms and Conditions which entitled it to a maritime lien against the Ship pursuant to Section 15 of the Australian Admiralty Act of 1988. The Australian Admiralty Act at Section 15 grants jurisdiction in case of:</p>
<p>“a proceeding on a maritime lien or other charge in respect of a ship or other property subject to the lien or charge.”</p>
<p>Australian law has a very restricted number of maritime liens, as is the case in England. They are:<br />
(a) Salvage<br />
(b) Damage done by a ship<br />
(c) Wages of the Master, or a member of a crew of a ship; or<br />
(d) Master’s disbursements</p>
<p>and nothing else. These are stingy jurisdictions.</p>
<p>The question to be decided was whether a lien for necessaries pursuant to the law of Canada or the US by reason of the contractual “proper law” clause” in the Bunker Supply Contract with the charterer of the vessel was a maritime lien for purposes of Section 15 of the Admiralty Act of Australia.</p>
<p>In other words is a FOREIGN MARITIME LIEN ENFORCEABLE in Australia, even though it is common ground that the provision of bunkers would NOT give rise to a maritime lien under Australian substantive law?<br />
THE PRIVY COUNCIL DECISION OF “HALCYON ISLE”</p>
<p>To succeed Reiter had to persuade the Australian Court that the Privy Council decision of the HALCYON ISLE (Bankers Trust v. Todd Shipyards [1981] A.C. 221) should no longer be followed in Australia.</p>
<p>Let us look briefly at the majority and minority decisions in the HALCYON ISLE.</p>
<p>If you recall, in that case the Ship was repaired in Brooklyn, New York, USA enjoying a US maritime lien. The Ship was arrested in Singapore by the Mortgagee Bank, Bankers Trust. She was sold via judicial sale and the proceeds could not satisfy in full the ship repairer and the mortgagee. The question arose whether the Ship repairer with a US maritime lien would rank higher than the mortgagee.</p>
<p>The majority led by Lord Diplock and two other judges decided that because the nature of a maritime lien under English/Singapore law was PROCEDURAL or REMEDIAL, it was governed by the law of the jurisdiction in which the proceeding was brought, namely the LEX FORI.</p>
<p>On the other hand, the minority, Lord Salmon &amp; Lord Scarman asked the following question:</p>
<p>Does English law, in the situation presented by the facts, recognize a maritime lien created by the law of the United States, i.e. the LEX LOCI CONTRACTUS where no such lien exists by its own internal law?</p>
<p>It answered as follows:</p>
<p>“In our view, the balance of authorities, the comity of nations, private international law and natural justice all answer this question in the affirmative. If this be correct, the English law (the LEX FORI) gives the maritime lien created by the LEX LOCI CONTRACTUS precedence over the mortgagee’s mortgage. If it were otherwise, injustice would prevail.”</p>
<p>In addition, the learned minority justices stated:</p>
<p>“It would be a denial of history and principle, in the present chaos of the law of the sea governing the recognition and priority of maritime liens and mortgages, to refuse the aid of private international law.”<br />
THE DECISION AT FIRST INSTANCE BY MR. JUSTICE McKERRACHER</p>
<p>Returning to the SAM HAWK, the learned trial judge, Mr. Justice McKerracher, against the background of different views states at the outset that the language of Section 15 of the Australian Admiralty Act is BROAD.</p>
<p>At paragraph 105 of his decision, he says:</p>
<p>“HALCYON ISLE is NOT binding on this Court, although as a decision of the Privy Council, it is accorded great respect and weight.”</p>
<p>He further states that the process of reasoning in the HALCYON ISLE turns on the distinction made between SUBSTANTIVE and PROCEDURAL issues and remedies.</p>
<p>At paragraph 106, he says:</p>
<p>“Rules which are directed to governing or regulating the mode or conduct of court proceedings are procedural and all other provisions or rules are to be classified as substantive.”</p>
<p>After the doctrine is dealt with, the learned judge at first instance favours the minority. He emphasizes that the HALCYON ISLE does not and should not apply in Australia. An Australian court should recognize and enforce a maritime lien arising under the foreign law governing the claim.</p>
<p>He adds that a claim pursuant to a maritime lien recognized under foreign law is a SUBSTANTIVE claim and not a procedural one. It is a claim as to the existence, extent or enforceability of the rights or duties of the parties, not merely directed to governing or regulating the mode or conduct of Court proceedings.</p>
<p>After citing several authors, including the late William Tetley, Mr. Justice Kerracher concludes that it is difficult to find any leading text which supports the majority ratio decidendi in HALCYON ISLE.</p>
<p>The trial judge concludes that even viewing the topic historically, it seems clear that a maritime lien is more than a procedural or remedial right.</p>
<p>He states at paragraph 117:</p>
<p>“Notwithstanding the majority view of the Privy Council in the HALCYON ISLE, there is much to be said for Reiter’s contention that the nature of the maritime lien is necessarily substantive. It is an inchoate right which attaches to the vessel and travels with the vessel independent of changes of ownership.”</p>
<p>At paragraph 119, he states:</p>
<p>“The minority view in the HALCYON ISLE should or indeed MUST be preferred in Australia as it accords with the substantive value of a maritime lien&#8230;A lien will operate independent of the fortuitous choice of venue at which a ship is arrested.”<br />
He further states at paragraph 120:</p>
<p>“It follows that I am satisfied on the pleaded case under s.15 of the Admiralty Act that this is a proceeding on a maritime lien, and therefore JURISDICTION has been conferred on the Court by that provision.”</p>
<p>He concludes that it is premature to shut out Reiter from the Australian Court and the Application of the Owners was dismissed.</p>
<p>So far, so good! However, in</p>
<p>THE DECISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN COURT OF APPEAL</p>
<p>Four of the five judges adopted the HALCYON ISLE majority decision and reversed the first instance judge.</p>
<p>Chief Justice Allsop and Mr. Justice Edelman state from the outset that:</p>
<p>“although we disagree with the approach of the primary judge, our disagreement essentially involves DIFFERENT LEGAL CHOICES AS TO PRINCIPLE AND CARRIES NO CRITICISM OF A CAREFUL AND THOUGHTFUL JUDGMENT.”</p>
<p>Personally, this is a very strange qualification. If the judgment is thoughtful and rendered carefully, why was it not maintained.</p>
<p>The four judges cover 290 paragraphs to conclude that there should be certainty, clarity and predictability in the law. Ranking of priorities is a matter for the LEX FORI and the machinery of remedies cannot be altered by the existence of a foreign system.</p>
<p>The question of priorities as a substantive question must be governed by the law of the forum.</p>
<p>The Appeal Court concludes that even if the law of Canada or the United States applies, any foreign rights recognized would need to be characterized, including by reference to the circumstances in which they arose, by Australian law to determine whether they could be described as a “maritime lien”. Whatever foreign rights might have arisen by the transaction, they are neither a maritime lien nor analogous to a maritime lien as that concept is known in Australian law. The majority decision in the HALCYON ISLE was maintained as consistent with the evolution of English law.</p>
<p>DECISION OF MR. JUSTICE RARES</p>
<p>The fifth Appeal judge that held against Reiter, namely Mr. Justice Rares, does not agree with the conclusion that the LEX FORI is the proper law for the classification of a foreign maritime lien. He disagrees with the reasons of the Chief Justice and Mr. Justice Edelman. He agrees with their Order to reverse the first instance judge, but upholds the minority decision of the HALCYON ISLE. This is paradoxical. In fact, Mr. Justice RARES is of the opinion that Reiter did not have a contractual nexus with the Owners of the Vessel but rather with the Charterer, and the US law and Canadian law it invoked could not bind or involve the Owners of the SAM HAWK.</p>
<p>However, his decision, after a thorough historical analysis, strongly upholds the minority decision in the HALCYON ISLE.</p>
<p>Referring to the majority decision in the HALCYON ISLE he states at paragraph 356:</p>
<p>“With great respect, Lord Diplock’s reasoning in the HALCYON ISLE that a maritime lien is procedural or remedial is difficult to reconcile with his acknowledgement of its potent and substantive impact on third parties’ rights.”</p>
<p>At paragraph 357, he states:</p>
<p>“I am of the opinion that such a right is not “procedural or remedial”. It is so substantive that it transcends a change of ownership.”</p>
<p>He concludes, at paragraph 394, that:</p>
<p>“I agree with the dissenting reasons of Lords Salmon and Scarman and their conclusion in the HALCYON ISLE that the LEX LOCI CONTRACTUS determines whether as a matter of SUBSTANCE a maritime lien exists, but the LEX FORI determines its priority.”</p>
<p>THE CANADIAN PERSPECTIVE</p>
<p>It is interesting to note that Canada, where I come from, namely a jurisdiction that derives its admiralty law from England just like Australia applied exactly what Mr. Justice Rares states in the SAM HAWK in the IOANNIS DASKALELIS (Todd Shipyards vs. Altema, 1974 S.C.R. 1248). (The LEX LOCI CONTRACTUS determines whether as a matter of substance a maritime lien exists, but the LEX FORI determines its priority).</p>
<p>The IOANNIS DASKALELIS decision was rendered six years prior to the HALCYON ISLE and is highly respected by the minority judges in the HALCYON ISLE but hardly analyzed by the majority judges in the HALCYON ISLE, and for that matter the SAM HAWK, with the exception of Mr. Justice Rares and, of course, the first instance judge, Mr. Justice McKerracher.</p>
<p>In that case a Greek ship, the IOANNIS DASKALELIS, owned by a Panamanian company, and already subject to a Greek mortgage registered in 1961, was repaired in March 1963 in a Brooklyn, New York shipyard (Todd Shipyards, the same shipyard involved in the HALCYON ISLE!) and she left without paying the cost of repairs (U.S. $82,000). American law grants a maritime lien to an American ship repairer, which lien ranks ahead of an even earlier foreign mortgage (but not ahead of a recorded U.S. mortgage). The ship was diverted by the mortgagee away from the American port of Seattle and was sent to Vancouver, Canada, where she was arrested by the mortgagee. The Canadian Supreme Court accepted jurisdiction and recognized the U.S. maritime lien under U.S. law. The Court applied U.S. law, because it held that the lien was a right and therefore substantive. The Canadian Supreme Court used its own ranking (of the forum) and ranked the lien ahead of the ship mortgage.</p>
<p>The decision of the Supreme Court of Canada is equitable, because the repairs added to the value of the object mortgaged, so that payment of the repairs did not reduce the rights of the mortgagee who had value added to his equity. The repair and the lien also allowed the ship to sail and earn profits necessary to pay off the mortgage.</p>
<p>CONCLUSION</p>
<p>It is unfortunate that the Australian Court of Appeal decided to follow the majority decision in the HALCYON ISLE. This Privy Council decision and its majority have been analyzed and criticized by many legal authors, and I suggest to you that the Australian Court of Appeal rendered a regressive decision. The minority decision in the HALCYON ISLE and the decision of the first instance judge in the SAM HAWK are, humbly submitted, progressive and should be followed.</p>
<p>The immediate fallout of the SAM HAWK appeal decision is that it has left many a solicitor and barrister in Australia with very little work. No foreign maritime lien holder will knock on Australia’s door. On the other hand, I would not be surprised if Australian lawyers will be knocking at your doors for much needed work.</p>
<p>Thank you.</p>
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		<title>PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF RECOVERY LAW AND THE ROLE OF FREIGHT FORWARDERS</title>
		<link>https://demanpillet.com/en/practical-aspects-of-recovery-law-and-the-role-of-freight-forwarders/</link>
		<comments>https://demanpillet.com/en/practical-aspects-of-recovery-law-and-the-role-of-freight-forwarders/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Thu, 01 Nov 2018 19:52:08 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Matthew Hamerman]]></dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Unclassified]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://demanpillet.com/?p=1274</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[By Marc de Man INTRODUCTION My purpose here today is to address you on the relevant aspects of recovery law and the role of the Freight Forwarder. My priorities are centered on practicality, cost effectiveness and efficiency. I shall accordingly try to balance these three considerations in the context of my presentation. It is worthwhile...]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p style="text-align: center;"><strong>By Marc de Man</strong></p>
<p>INTRODUCTION</p>
<p>My purpose here today is to address you on the relevant aspects of recovery law and the role of the Freight Forwarder.</p>
<p>My priorities are centered on practicality, cost effectiveness and efficiency. I shall accordingly try to balance these three considerations in the context of my presentation.</p>
<p>It is worthwhile to briefly go over a few key elements which illustrate the distinctiveness of the Canada context.</p>
<p>Canada is a privileged jurisdiction in that it has a legal system derived from both the English Common Law and the European Continental Civil Law.</p>
<p>It is the coexistence of these dual legal systems that give rise to four effective legal remedies, all four of which may be used by creditors to protect their marine cargo claims against faulty debtors in a variety of circumstances.</p>
<p>First, the Action in Rem is the most useful and prevalent recourse against the ocean carrier. It is a direct action against the “res” (or thing, in Latin), generally the ship. This recourse is available for cargo owners who have suffered damage due to the unseaworthiness of the vessel. It may also be used for unpaid bunker supplies or for unpaid suppliers of necessaries. Thus, if a ship enters into the Canadian jurisdiction and it has caused damage to cargo, the cargo claimant can institute an action in rem against the vessel. The arrest in rem effectively paralyzes the ship where she is berthed, and the warrant will be released only upon the ship providing adequate security for the claim. The action in rem is thus specifically designed to prevent the culprit ship from escaping the Canadian jurisdiction without some assurance that there is security for the debt after the judgment.<br />
The second recourse, the Sistership Arrest, is also an Action in Rem extended to any vessel which at the time of the institution of the action was beneficially owned by the person who was the owner of the ship which was the subject of the action. The term “beneficial owner” is of key importance. It has been interpreted by the Federal Court of Canada to have the same meaning as “registered owner”. This interpretation somewhat restricts the application of this recourse, but, with sufficient evidence of common ownership, it may prove to be a very useful tool for claimants against particular shipping fleets.</p>
<p>The third recourse, the Mareva Injunction is an “in personam” relief which restrains the owner of the assets from dealing with them. Essentially, the Defendant is told “if you have assets, you cannot dispose of them”. It is generally directed against banks or financial institutions.<br />
Finally, the Seizure before Judgment, a purely civilian recourse, is provided for in the new Quebec Code of Civil Procedure at art. 516. It is essentially the equivalent of the Mareva Injunction but in the Civil Law. The Plaintiff is not required to give an undertaking as to damage, as is the case in the Mareva Injunction. However, since it is only provided for in the Quebec Code of Civil Procedure, the seizure before judgment can only be presented before the Superior Court of Quebec.</p>
<p>I. HOW LONG DO CARGO CASES TAKE IN CANADA?</p>
<p>HOW MUCH DO THEY COST IN FEES AND EXPENSES?</p>
<p>Cargo cases, and litigation more generally, widely vary in terms of the length of time they require from beginning to end. The process is largely dependent on the lawyers’ management of the cases.</p>
<p>Though there are of course a number of strict delays provided for in the procedural rules of Canadian Courts (whether it be the Federal Court Rules for the Federal Court or the Code of Civil Procedure of Quebec) the onus is on the parties to advance the litigation process.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, delays continue to occur as a result of Parties, (usually lawyers!) unnecessarily multiplying procedural steps and interlocutory motions to delay the onset of a trial or to exhaust the opposing party. Evidently, these delay tactics can severally prejudice the progress and advancement of litigation. As the expression goes, “justice delayed is justice denied”. There is in fact, in the past number of years, added pressure on lawyers to ensure that they do not drag matters ad infinitum.</p>
<p>However, if both parties are diligent and committed to advancing the litigation forward, the process can be expeditious. Files can be made ready for trial within a year or a year and a half. More complicated and sophisticated matters may require additional time.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, that is not where it ends. Once the parties are ready to be heard on the merits, they are faced with long-delays to obtain trial dates.</p>
<p>It is no secret that delays to obtain a trial date are of great concern within the Canadian legal community. Though delays are far shorter at the Federal Court of Canada than in the provincial courts, litigants must still account for several months of waiting time before they are attributed a trial date.</p>
<p>In both the provincial courts and the Federal Court of Canada, Judges are increasingly required to get actively involved in case management. They are further required to promote and encourage mediation and other modes of alternative dispute resolution mechanisms to provoke settlements. This typically has the effect of shortening the litigation process.</p>
<p>Where lawyer’s fees are concerned, these are decided between the lawyer and the client. If the lawyer and the client agree, the lawyer representing the Plaintiff may act on a contingency basis, otherwise known as “no cure, no pay” plus disbursements. The percentage for cargo claims is usually of 25% of the recovery plus disbursements. If acting in defence, the lawyer will require payment on an hourly basis, with rates ranging from CDN$250 to $600 per hour, if not more.</p>
<p>As for costs, a distinction must be drawn between judicial and extra-judicial costs. Judicial costs are those provided in the procedural rules for each court. For instance, these include the costs to institute an action, to hold examinations on discovery, etc. These are payable by the losing party. The lawyer’s fees constitute extra-judicial costs which must be paid by the client whether the client wins or losses. In Canada, the losing party is generally not required to pay the lawyer fees of the winning party, unless the losing lawyer has shown himself to be extraordinarily abusive throughout the litigation process and is condemned to solicitor/client costs.</p>
<p>Disbursements refer to the charges and expenses which are paid out of pocket by the lawyer for the account of the client. In Canada, both at the provincial courts level and the Federal Courts, disbursements are generally quite low for proceedings. These include the initial cost to institute the legal proceedings, the bailiff’s fees to serve the proceedings, the cost of stenographers at examinations on discovery, taxis to Court and long distance charges.</p>
<p>Over the past number of years, Courts have made efforts to modernize their rules by allowing new modes of communication to be integrated into the litigation process. These modernization efforts result in lower costs for attorneys and clients alike and for increased efficiency.</p>
<p>For instance, fees and expenses are now minimized since Courts now permit that non-originating proceedings be served by email. Also, the Federal Court now has in place a convenient E-filing system which allows for lawyers to file their proceedings without requiring a bailiff. These are all cost-cutting measures being put in place by the judicial system, all of which aim to usher the judiciary into the 21st century. The Court system is undeniably a bastion of traditionalism. Change can be slow and incremental, but it is making its way, slowly but surely!</p>
<p>II. HOW QUICKLY DOES AN UNDERWRITER NEED TO ACT? WHAT ARE THE TYPICAL TIMES TO PROTECT THE TIME TO CLAIM AND TO SUE FOR EACH MODE OF TRANSIT (OCEAN, AIR, TRUCKING, WAREHOUSE AND RAIL)?</p>
<p>For ocean carriage<br />
Canada is subject to the Hague-Visby Rules. Therefore the time for suit is one year from delivery of the goods or the date when the goods should have been delivered.</p>
<p>In addition, pursuant to the Hague Visby Rules, the claimant is required to provide the carrier with Notice of Loss.</p>
<p>Upon delivery from a carrier, the consignee is obliged to inspect the goods, and if they are in bad order, to specify on the receipts the extent of the loss or damage. If the loss or damage is not apparent or if the cargo is not delivered, then the consignee must give written notice within three days from the moment of delivery or from the moment of “deemed delivery”.</p>
<p>If notice is not duly provided this does not bar the claimant from claim, however the goods are then presumed to have been delivered as described in the Bill of Lading. Whereas if notice is given, then the goods are presumed to have been delivered as described in the notice. Both presumptions are rebuttable by any admissible proof.</p>
<p>Time can be extended, usually for 3 months at a time if there is agreement by the carrier.</p>
<p>For air carriage<br />
The limitation period for bringing proceedings against an air carrier is the same in all Conventions/Protocols (whether Montreal and/or Warsaw) and is of two years. That is to say that the action must be brought within 2 years from either the date of arrival or the expected date of arrival of the aircraft, or from the date on which the carriage stopped.</p>
<p>Notice of loss must be provided to the carrier within 14 days from the date of receipt of the cargo. In a case of delay, a written notice must be provided within 21 days from the date on which the cargo should have arrived.</p>
<p>Time may also be extended if there is agreement by the carrier.</p>
<p>For trucking<br />
The law applicable to the carriage of goods by road depends on whether the carriage is intra-provincial (within a single same province) or extra-provincial (between provinces or between provinces and a foreign state).</p>
<p>Where the carriage is intra-provincial, the law of the province in which the carriage occurs applies and most provinces have legislation addressing the rights and obligations of the parties to a contract of carriage. Luckily, there is general (though not complete) uniformity between the various provincial statutes and regulations.</p>
<p>If the carriage is extra-provincial the Federal Motor Vehicle Transport Act applies. This Act provides that, for extra-provincial transport, the conditions of carriage and limitation that apply are those of the province of origin. If there is no provincial law that applies, for instance because the transport originated in a foreign state, then the conditions of carriage and limitations of liability that apply are those of the place of origin. The parties may at all times provide contractually for a governing law.</p>
<p>Since transportation by road is governed by the laws of each province of Canada, we must look at the provincial statutes in order to determine the applicable time bar. For instance, if the contract was entered into between the shipper and the trucker in the province of Quebec, the time bar is three years from the date of delivery, or from the date on which the cargo should have been delivered, since this is the time bar provided for in the Civil Code of Quebec.</p>
<p>Under the Civil Code of Quebec, claimants are required to notify the carrier within 60 days of the loss or delay of the goods. However, if there is no delivery, claimants may notify the carrier within 9 months from the date of shipment.</p>
<p>In Ontario the Limitations Act prescribes a general limitation period of two years from the discovery of the cause of action.</p>
<p>Extensions may be obtained from the carrier.</p>
<p>For warehousing<br />
Warehousing is purely a matter of provincial law and is accordingly governed by the laws of each given province. It therefore follows that the applicable time-bar for instituting proceedings is found in provincial statutes or the Civil Code of Quebec. In Ontario for instance, the time-bar is of two years from the moment of discovery of the cause of action.</p>
<p>Where warehousing is concerned, the same time bar period applies as for trucking. The Civil Code of Quebec uses the term “contract of deposit” to qualify the obligations of the parties to the contract. The term depository refers to the person who undertakes to keep the cargo for a certain time, while the term depositor designates the person who hands over the goods to the depository. The three year time-bar applies from the moment that the depository is made aware, or should have been aware, of the breach of the contract of deposit.</p>
<p>For rail carriage<br />
The time to sue a railway carrier is one year, and notice of loss should be provided within 4 months.</p>
<p>III. WHAT ARE THE TYPICAL LIMITS OF LIABILITY FOR EACH MODE OF TRANSIT (OCEAN, AIR, TRUCKING, WAREHOUSE AND RAIL) AND THE WAYS AROUND THEM?</p>
<p>The typical limits of liability for ocean carriage</p>
<p>The typical limits of liability for ocean carriage are stated in the Hague Visby Rules at Article IV(5)(a). This article states that unless the nature and the value of the cargo have been declared by the shipper before shipment and inserted in the Bill of Lading, neither the carrier nor the ship shall in any event be or become liable for any loss or damage to or in connection with the cargo in an amount exceeding 666.67 SDRs per package or unit (1 SDR = 1.82CAD) or 2 SDRs per kilogram of gross weight of the cargo lost or damaged, whichever is the highest of the two calculations.</p>
<p>The value of the total amount recoverable is calculated by reference to the value of the cargo at the place and time in which the cargo is discharged or should have been so discharged from the ship in accordance with the contract of carriage.</p>
<p>Where a container, pallet or similar article or transport is used to consolidate cargo, the number of packages or units enumerated in the Bill of Lading as packed in such article of transport are considered as the package or unit.</p>
<p>The typical limits of liability for air carriage</p>
<p>The air carrier is entitled to limit its liability unless the consignor has made a special declaration of value. The limitation is 19 SDRs per kilogram. Since 1 SDR is approximately valued at 1.82CAD at today’s rate, this equals CAD$34.58 per kilogram.</p>
<p>This limitation is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to break as the argument of wilful misconduct does not exist any longer following the ratification of the Montreal Convention.</p>
<p>The typical limits of liability for motor carriers</p>
<p>In Quebec, pursuant to the Transport Act, the carrier limits its liability to $4.41 per kilogram. This limitation applies unless the shipper has declared a higher value on the face of the Bill of Lading. Nevertheless, in any case where the carrier has acted with gross negligence limitation may be broken.</p>
<p>The typical limits of liability for warehousing</p>
<p>There are no limits of liability set out under Quebec law for warehousing. Therefore, any limit set by the warehouseman must be clearly set out contractually. Limits of liability can be broken where the warehouseman has acted with gross negligence.</p>
<p>The typical limits of liability for rail carriers</p>
<p>Rail carriage is governed in Canada by the Canada Transportation Act. Section 137 of this Act provides that a railway company shall not limit or restrict its liability to a shipper except by means of a written agreement or confidential rate contract signed by the shipper (or by an association or other body representing shippers).</p>
<p>IV. WHAT ARE THE MOST PECULIAR ASPECTS OF CANADA’S CARGO CLAIM JURISPRUDENCE?</p>
<p>Concurrent jurisdiction</p>
<p>One interesting and peculiar aspect of Canada’s judicial system stems from the fact that local provincial courts have concurrent jurisdiction with the Federal Court of Canada.</p>
<p>However, it is important to bear in mind that while the provincial and federal courts exercise concurrent jurisdiction some remedies can only be exercised by one court and not the other.</p>
<p>For instance, the arrest in rem and the sistership arrest can only be brought before the Federal Court, while the seizure before judgment may only be considered by a judge of the Superior Court of the province of Quebec.</p>
<p>Canadian Courts’ jurisdiction</p>
<p>Another important element to consider is that of jurisdiction. Section 46(1) of the Marine Liability Act grants Canadian Courts jurisdiction to hear a claim for the carriage of goods by water if any of the conditions provided for in that section are met, and this, in spite of any forum selection clause which may be included in a Bill of Lading. Thus if the port of loading or discharge are Canadian or the Contract of Carriage is entered into in Canada, the Courts shall have automatic jurisdiction despite a forum selection clause.</p>
<p>Ease of conducting arrest proceedings in Canada</p>
<p>Arrest proceedings are very efficient and unencumbered under Canadian law.<br />
For example, a claimant is not required to obtain leave from the Court to arrest a vessel. This means that a claimant may move to have a vessel arrested without requiring permission of the Court (and without ever having to go before a judge!). Several jurisdictions, such as Australia, for instance, are required to obtain permission from a Court in order to proceed with an arrest. This results in delays which can at times be fatal. The Canadian arrest procedure allows for claimants to act quickly to protect their claim. Indeed, if a vessel is at the Port of Montreal, we are able to arrest within approximately 2 hours provided that the claimant has provided us with all of the documents and particulars required to evidence the debt.</p>
<p>Also, Canadian Courts do not require any documents (whether originals or copies) for the issuance of arrest proceedings. There is no necessity to have a Power of Attorney to act.</p>
<p>Moreover, another Canadian particularity rests in the fact that claimants are not required to post counter-security to arrest a Vessel.</p>
<p>Finally, if the loss is on board the ship, for example in St. John’s, Newfoundland or Victoria, B.C., we can act from Montreal in the Federal Court. In other words, the Federal Court has jurisdiction throughout all of Canada.</p>
<p>V. THE NEWEST DEVELOPMENTS IN CANADIAN CARGO CLAIM JURISPRUDENCE IN RECENT YEARS.</p>
<p>The first decision I will discuss today emanates from the Federal Court of Appeal and concerns sistership arrest in Canada.</p>
<p>In Westshore Terminals Limited Partnership v. Leo Ocean, S.A., 2014 FCA 231, the law of sistership arrest in Canada was clarified to confirm that sistership arrests cannot be “stacked” and that security can be obtained up to the value of the vessel arrested, even if that vessel is more valuable than the offending vessel.</p>
<p>In Westshore Terminals, part of the issue to be determined was whether a party could arrest both the offending vessel and her sistership. Previous case law and doctrine in Canada did not place a limit on the number of sisterships which could be arrested in support of one claim. In interpreting language of the Federal Courts Act, the Court found that although the language was ambiguous, it suggested that only one ship could be arrested.</p>
<p>Finally, let me deal with a decision pertaining to road carriage, specifically on the issue of the declaration of value.</p>
<p>In the matter of A &amp; A Trading Ltd. v. DIL’S Trucking Inc., 2015 ONSC 1887, the plaintiff Shipper had hired the defendant Trucker to transport goods by truck from Toronto to Calgary.</p>
<p>The goods were stolen while in transit and the Shipper commenced proceedings to recover the value of the goods.</p>
<p>During discussions between the Shipper and Trucker, the Shipper advised the Trucker that the goods had a value of exceeding $250,000 and inquired whether the Trucker had sufficient insurance. The Trucker confirmed there was sufficient insurance. On the day of the shipment a bill of lading was filled out by the Shipper to which was attached an invoice showing the value of the goods to be $263,000.</p>
<p>The Shipper&#8217;s bill of lading was given to the Trucker but the Trucker also filled out its own bill of lading which referenced the invoice number. The Trucker&#8217;s bill of lading was signed by both parties. Neither bill of lading contained a declaration of the value of the goods on its face. The main issue in the case was whether the Trucker could limit its liability to $4.41 per kilogram as provided in the applicable Ontario regulations. The limitation amount would have been approximately $100,000.</p>
<p>The Ontario Superior Court held that the Trucker was liable for the full value of the goods stolen.</p>
<p>The Court’s reasoning was that the contract of carriage is not limited to the contents of the bill of lading. Indeed, the contract of carriage includes the oral representation by the Trucker as to insurance as well as the bill of lading prepared by the Shipper and the invoice that was attached to it. A declaration of value need not be set out in the space provided in a bill of lading. The intent is to provide the carrier with notice of the value of the goods. Given that the Trucker&#8217;s bill of lading contained a reference to the invoice which contained the value of the goods, there was a sufficient declaration of value on the face of the bill of lading and the Trucker could not limit its liability.</p>
<p>VI. THE FREIGHT FORWARDER IN CANADA</p>
<p>This Conference, unlike previous ones, has emphasized the role of the Freight Forwarder.</p>
<p>The position of the freight forwarder in Canadian law is difficult to grasp. The terminology that is used to define the freight forwarder is so loose that even the legal authors have difficulty circumscribing the functions of a freight forwarder.</p>
<p>John McNeil Q.C. distinguishes between the freight forwarder and the shipping agent. For Mr. McNeil if the freight forwarder acts as a carrier, he is known as the “freight forwarder”. However, if he acts as an agent, he is known as a “shipping agent”. This is somewhat similar to the distinction in France of “commissaire de transport” and the “Transitaire”.</p>
<p>On the other hand, the late professor Tetley defines the freight forwarder as such whether he is acting as a carrier or an agent.</p>
<p>In his fifth edition of Marine Cargo Claims he states that the legal responsibility of freight forwarders often seems mysterious because the freight forwarders have assumed two different legal roles &#8211; agents and principal contractor. They are not regulated by any national convention, resulting in various national laws that control their actions, giving rise to conflicts of law.</p>
<p>At times, the freight forwarder has acted as principal contractor arranging the carriage in his own name. His fee, payable by the shipper, is a straight freight charge.</p>
<p>In the case of Bertex Fashions Inc. v. Cargonaut Canada Inc. (1995) F.C.J. No. 827, the trial judge states, citing D.J. Hill on “Freight Forwarders”:</p>
<p>“The position of the forwarder as an intermediary between carrier and shipper is not always easily ascertained, and must often depend upon a careful analysis of the facts in each individual set of circumstances.”</p>
<p>In that case, the trial judge cites Tetley, who states that there are no hard rules for determining whether the freight forwarder is acting as agent or as principal contractor. He sets out several useful criteria that will assist in making the determination as follows:</p>
<p>a) the manner in which the forwarder characterizes its obligations in the contract documents;<br />
b) the manner in which the parties have dealt with each other in the past;<br />
c) whether a bill of lading was issued;<br />
d) the manner in which the bill of lading (if issued) was signed;<br />
e) whether the terms on the rear of the bill of lading (which typically identify the forwarder as a mere agent) are or are not consistent with the terms on the front of the bill of lading;<br />
f) whether the shipper knew which carrier would actually carry the goods;<br />
g) the mode of payment: Did the forwarder charge an amount calculated upon the freight and other expenses and then charge a further amount or a percentage as its fee? Or did the forwarder charge an all-inclusive figure?</p>
<p>The Freight Forwarder then, as regards his customer, the owner or shipper of the goods, behaves somewhat as a carrier and as regards the carrier, or the party moving the goods as a shipper. He puts into effect all arrangements by which possession is surrendered by the owner of the cargo or shipper. He undertakes arranging for terminals, warehouses, containers, land, sea, air or rail movement, and all customs and insurance matters the trip involves. His profit is made on the difference between what he is able to charge his customers and what he is able to negotiate with his traffic lines through large volume.</p>
<p>The hallmark of his undertaking is the assumption of responsibility for the transportation of cargo from origin to destination.</p>
<p>Now, as far as the shipping agent is concerned, he is known in the industry as a transportation broker, load broker, forwarding agent or shipping agent.</p>
<p>If the shipping agent holds himself as a carrier, and attends to the payment of the freight charge levied by the carrier, he engages, on his own account, and runs the risk of being found to be in fact a freight forwarder. The shipping agent who issues a bill of lading is quite vulnerable to such a conclusion.</p>
<p>A careful inquiry is necessary to the precise nature of the agent’s undertaking if, by his conduct, representation on his contract, he has assumed the character and liability of a freight forwarder. The distinction between the two is often a difficult one.</p>
<p>The shipping agent never comes into physical possession or contact with the cargo. It is a person whose services are engaged for the purpose of facilitating the movement of cargo. The shipping agent has access to the transportation industry, its schedule, rate and routes and can coordinate a movement of cargo through various modes of transportation to the desired destination. He appears in classes of transportation that are international or multi modal in character.</p>
<p>In Canada, all the documents issued by the freight forwarder, be it a through bill of lading, or the contract with the shipper are invariably subject to Standard Trading Conditions (S.T.C.). In Canada they are known as the CIFFA (The Canadian International Freight Forwarders Association) Standard Trading Conditions.</p>
<p>The Time Bar provision at Section 10 of the CIFFA conditions is problematic in that it provides for a 9 month time bar from the date of delivery or deemed delivery. This provision has not been tested by the Courts in Canada, but it may be contrary to the Hague Visby Rules if the freight forwarder acts as a carrier. Moreover, if the law of the Province of Quebec applies, it would be against public order as the Civil Code of Quebec at article 2883 states that prescription may not be renounced in advance, and article 2884 states that no prescriptive period other than that provided by law may be agreed upon. The prescriptive period in the Province of Quebec is three years.</p>
<p>The CIFFA S.T.C. further provide at section 21 that the Conditions shall be governed by the laws of Canada and of the province within Canada which the Company has its principal place of business. It further states that by accepting the services provided under the Conditions, the shipper, consignee and owner of the goods irrevocably attorns to the exclusive jurisdiction of the Courts of that Province and the Federal Court of Canada.</p>
<p>The CIFFA limitation at section 15 is 2 SDR’s per kilo if the Freight Forwarder acted as a principal and issued a through bill of lading with the maximum recoverable of 75,000 SDR per transaction.</p>
<p>Although we are limited by time, there is also, as the late Professor Tetley states, the particularly intractable problem of determining whether the carrier may recover the freight and related costs of carriage from the shipper or consignee when the freight forwarder, by reason of insolvency, bankruptcy or simple default, has neglected to remit the payment he has received originally by the shipper to the carrier. In the decision of Mediterranean Shipping Co. S.A. v. BPB Westroc Inc. (2003) 238 F.T.R. 135, the freight forwarder appeared to have been acting purely as the agent for the shipper, so that the agent’s default was that of the principal. Consequently, the shipper, having failed to discharge its onus of rebutting the presumption of its liability, was condemned to pay the freight a second time.</p>
<p>Professor Tetley concludes that freight forwarders are faced with a dilemma &#8211; will they present themselves as “principal contractors” or as agents? At times they even flirt with the term “carrier”. Their solution to the problem has been new standard trading conditions which admit equivocally that they may be principal contractors, but the terms are so evasively wrapped in conditions, limitations and exclusions that there is little clarity as to their responsibility at law. Much of this uncertainty is the fault of the freight forwarders, who contest any legislation or court decision which would find them as responsible parties to the contract of carriage. On the other hand, and paradoxically, they do not want to be paid a percentage as agents.</p>
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		<title>LA ACCIÓN IN REM</title>
		<link>https://demanpillet.com/en/la-accion-in-rem/</link>
		<comments>https://demanpillet.com/en/la-accion-in-rem/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Tue, 08 Sep 2015 13:39:26 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Benjamin Dubé]]></dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Unclassified]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[POR MARC DE MAN Hace mas de 25 años, viajé a Buenos Aires, Argentina, para ocuparme de un caso argentino/canadiense. El gran abogado brillante que no está más con nosotros, el Dr. Arturo Ravina, me recogió en mi hotel y me trajo a un edificio majestuoso sobre la Calle Florida que ocupaba en esa epoca la...]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p style="text-align: center;"><strong>POR </strong><strong>MARC DE MAN</strong></p>
<p>Hace mas de 25 años, viajé a Buenos Aires, Argentina, para ocuparme de un caso argentino/canadiense. El gran abogado brillante que no está más con nosotros, el Dr. Arturo Ravina, me recogió en mi hotel y me trajo a un edificio majestuoso sobre la Calle Florida que ocupaba en esa epoca la Academia Naval Argentina. En su sala principal, se reunía la Asociación de Derecho Marítimo</p>
<p>Argentina. Se encontraban eminentes colegas tal como el Dr. Domingo Ray, el Dr. Domingo Lopez Saavedra, el Dr. Cappagli. El Dr. Chami quien era un joven abogado en esos tiempos, así como el Dr. Jorge Radovich, humildemente sentado en un rincon, pero siempre con esa maravillosa voz profunda.</p>
<p>Sin ninguna advertencia, el Dr. Ravina me pidío simplemente de pronunciar un discurso ante esta ilustre audiencia. Me arrancó la alfomba debajo de mis pies, pero, por suerte y aunque no tenía nada preparado de repente dejé escapar una pregunta “¿Porque ustedes no tienen la acción in rem?”. Con esto se inició una discusión sobre varios temas, inclusive mis problemas para conseguir un arresto de una nave con carga canadiense en el puerto de Buenos Aires.</p>
<p>Mi tema hoy, simplemente, es la acción in rem.</p>
<p>¿Cuales son sus origines?</p>
<p><strong>1. ORIGINES</strong></p>
<p>Es evidentemente un derivado del derecho Romano, que tenia dos maneras de introducir una acción legal: el actio in rem y el actio in personam.</p>
<p>In rem significa de la cosa en si. La acción in rem es contra un artículo de propiedad y no contra una persona.</p>
<p>En Latin, in rem significa “contra o acerca de una cosa”. Es derivado de la palabra “res”, que significa “la cosa”.</p>
<p>Es la nave, o la carga, el flete, o hasta incluso los ingresos de una venta, que son demandados, pero no el dueño de la nave, o de la carga o el flete. Es la nave que sufre las consecuencias. El dueño o armador sufre las consecuencias si la acción es in personam.</p>
<p>Es la arma la más perniciosa y eficaz utilizada por los que tienen una reclamación contra la nave, bien sea por Convención Internacional, o por cesión reglamentaria de jurisdicción, o por costumbre marítima.</p>
<p>La acción in rem es entrelazada de modo inextricable con el privilegio marítimo</p>
<p><strong>2. LA ACCIÓN IN REM Y EL PRIVILEGIO MARÍTIMO</strong></p>
<p>(en ingles, el “maritime lien”). La decisión inglesa de The Bold Buccleugh (1852) 7 MOO PC 267 es la autoridad más importante sobre la esencia del privilegio marítimo. Es el fundamento para un procedimiento in rem, que es hasta cierto punto la maquinaria legal para perfeccionar un derecho nacido en el momento en el cual el privilegio se acopla. En otras palabras, el privilegio marítimo es una reclamación o privilegio sobre la cosa (res) que se realiza por el proceso legal, a saber, la acción in rem.</p>
<p>La pregunta entonces surge en relación a la naturaleza de Derecho Civil de esta arma legal tan eficaz.</p>
<p>Para responder a esta pregunta, tenemos que definir lo que es el Derecho Marítimo.</p>
<p><strong>3. PROCEDIMIENTO DE DERECHO CIVIL &#8211; DEFINICIÓN DEL DERECHO MARÍTIMO</strong></p>
<p>El Derecho Marítimo sustantivo es en si un sistema legal, con sus leyes particulares en varios ambitos.</p>
<p>Por ejemplo:</p>
<ul>
<li>la venta (tal como la venta de naves)</li>
<li>el pago de arrendamiento (tal como en contratos de fletamento)</li>
<li>contratos (tal como en el transporte de carga por mar)</li>
<li>seguros (tal como el seguro marítimo, sin duda una de las primeras formas de seguros)<br />
derecho corporativo</li>
<li>sus procedimientos particulares (tal como la acción in rem, la acción in personam, y embargos preventivos)</li>
<li>sus proprias Cortes, tal como las Admiralty Courts, con su propria lex mercatoria o derecho marítimo en general</li>
</ul>
<p>El Derecho Marítimo consiste, inter alia, en las Convenciones Marítimas Internacionales modernas, inclusive las Convensiones de Abordage (Collision), salvamento, transporte de carga por mar, privilegios marítimos, hipotecas, y limitaciones a favor del armador. Estas Convenciones han podido crear un puente para conectar los dos principales familias jurídicas del mundo occidental, a saber el Derecho CIVIL y el COMMON LAW que son aplicadas de manera similar por las instituciones judiciales de diferentes juridicciones, tal como el</p>
<p>Reino Unido y Francia. Estas Convenciones Marítimas Internacionales fomentan la armonización internacional de la ley, promoviendo una sintesis constructiva de las tradiciones legales de donde han surgido.</p>
<p>Se puede añadir ademas, que el Derecho Marítimo es un sistema legal mixto propio, que se encuentra en todas las jurisdicciones, inclusive las jurisdicciones que solo pertenecen a una tradición mayor legal. El Derecho Marítimo es CIVIL en sus origenes, con una infusión en Inglaterra en los dos últimos siglos de principios e inovaciones del Common Law Ingles.</p>
<p><strong>4. CONFLICTO ENTRE LOS ABOGADOS INGLESES EJERCIENDO EL DERECHO CIVIL Y LOS ABOGADOS EJERCIENDO EL COMMON LAW</strong></p>
<p>Permítanme desarrollar este aspecto en mayor detalle:</p>
<p>Hay que acordarse que en Inglaterra hubo una tendencia CIVILISTA por largo tiempo. Desde el punto de vista histórico, había una relación dificil y complicada entre las cortes de Common Law y las Cortes Marítimas (Admiralty Courts). Esto data desde la creación de las Cortes Marítimas (Admiralty Courts) por lo menos a fines del siglo 13.</p>
<p>De hecho, la tensión entre los civilistas y los abogados de common law duro quinientos años, hasta finales del siglo 19, cuando el Admiralty Court se transformó en la única institución judicial que aplicaba el derecho civil y otorgo su poder en la forma de jurisdicción marítima a las cortes de common law.</p>
<p>Originalmente, el English High Court of Admiralty (la Corte Marítima inglesa) fue el instrumento del puesto del Lord High Admiral. La corona inglesa delegaba su prerrogativa real en materia marítima al Almirante. La Corte Marítima Inglesa (the Admiralty Court) llegó a existir para tratar disputas que se encontraban en el ambito de la jurisdicción del Almirante.</p>
<p>Especificamente, el derecho romano se enseñaba en las Universidades de Oxford y Cambridge, pero cubria el derecho matrimonial y testamentario heredados del derecho canonico, y el derecho marítimo derivado de la lex mercatoria por el comercio de Bordeaux. El derecho romano abarcaba el derecho civil desarollado principalmente del derecho de costumbre, perfeccionado por la jurisprudencia y legislación. El derecho canónico fue ademas perfeccionado por los procedimientos en la corte. El derecho marítimo adoptó el procedimiento romano de la accion in rem, y la Corte Marítima en Inglaterra (the High Court of Admiralty) desde el principio, utilizó al nivel procesal la acción in rem.</p>
<p>Otra característica de la Corte Marítima inglesa fue la aplicación de principios de equidad (equity) basados en varias fuentes, tal como el Derecho Romano y la ley natural.</p>
<p>Es interesante subrayar el resentimiento de las cortes de Common Law contra el poder empleado por la Corte Marítima de Derecho Civil. Desde 1296 en adelante, los abogados del common law trataron de limitar la jurisdicción marítima a un campo restringido cubriendo solo “las cosas hechas sobre el mar” (“things done upon the sea”).</p>
<p>No obstante, y esto es muy importante, las cortes de common law no podían actuar de manera eficaz enfrentadas por el sujeto y la practica del embargo preventivo de naves (o el embargo antes de una decisión de la Corte). No podían aplicar la acción in rem. Esto era de jurisdicción exclusiva de la Corte Marítima inglesa.</p>
<p><strong>5. ORIGENES Y DESAROLLO DEL HIGH COURT OF ADMIRALTY INGLES (CORTE MARÍTIMA INGLESA)</strong></p>
<p>La Corte Marítima Inglesa tuvo un gran resurgimiento en su jurisdicción de derecho civil en los primeros años del siglo 19, a causa de su jurisdicción sobre la ley de premios (prize law). Las guerras Napoleonicas introdujeron los premios de guerra en la jurisdicción inglesa. El premio que regresaba a Inglaterra se accionaba en la Corte Marítima Inglesa in rem contra la nave.</p>
<p><strong>6. LORD STOWELL Y LA LEY DE PREMIO</strong></p>
<p>Lord Stowell, el juez marítimo de esa época elevó la Corte Marítima Inglesa a una posición importante. Había un constante llamamiento a esta Corte marítima. El premio que se traía a Inglaterra se accionaba en la Corte Marítima in rem contra la nave capturada. Para otorgar un titulo claro a su nuevo proprietario la Corte tenía que condenar la nave.</p>
<p><strong>7. EXTENSIÓN DE LA JURISDICCIÓN DEL ADMIRALTY COURT</strong></p>
<p>En 1840, una ley del Parlamento Inglés fue adoptada para extender y mejorar la jurisdicción de la Corte Marítima. En ese año hubo un movimiento para el resurgimiento de la juridicción marítima inglesa. En los años 1840, 1854 y 1861 se adoptaron leyes sobre la Corte Marítima inglesa que extendieron la jurisdicción general de esta Corte a sujetos tal como hipotecas sobre naves, el titulo de propiedad de naves, salvamento, remolque, necesarios, construcción, reparación de naves, reclamaciones por daños a la carga y conocimientos de embarque, sueldos para tripulación y otros. Estas leyes evidentemente extendieron considerablemente el otorgo inicial de jurisdicción de “la cosa hecha sobre el mar” (“the thing done upon the sea”).</p>
<p>Durante este tiempo, grandes jueces tal como Dr. Stephen Lushington y Sir Robert Phillimore presentaron importantes decisiones. Esta era una época cuando la tela de fondo proyectaba el desarollo del transporte marítimo por vapor resultando en un aumento del comercio y un aumento de incidentes de salvamento, abordaje y daños. Todo esto ayudo al desarollo y la importancia de la Corte Marítime inglesa en su area del derecho civil. Pero, siempre en las sombras subsistían los abogados del common law y sus resentimientos contra los civilistas.</p>
<p>Antes de describirles el colapso desastroso de los civilistas, necesito explicarles quien eran y como se desarollaron.</p>
<p>Como vengo de decirles, los civilistas eran los descendientes de los abogados canonistas y retenían su herencia al continuar sus monopolios sobre la practica eclesiastica y marítima.</p>
<p>Sin embargo, el rey Henry VIII, suprimió las Facultades de derecho canónico en Cambridge y Oxford. La supresión de los canonistas los transformaron en civilistas principalmente en la practica del derecho civil.</p>
<p>Durante muchos siglos, los abogados y jueces de la Corte Marítima inglesa formaron parte del “Colegio de Civilistas” (College of Civilians), particularmente del “Doctors’ Commons”.</p>
<p><strong>8. DOCTORS’ COMMONS</strong></p>
<p>Doctor’s Commons era una descendencia de Trinity Hall, Cambridge, esta última fundada en 1350 como un colegio para el estudio de las leyes civiles y eclesiasticas modificadas por la ley estatutaria.</p>
<p>Doctors’ Commons era el equivalente a un club privado. El número de abogados al momento de su incorporación totalizaba 17 miembros, y en 1858, llegó a incorporar 26 miembros. Estos miembros en esa época tenían el monopolio absoluto en materia marítima en Inglaterra.</p>
<p>Para incorporarse como un miembro del Colegio de Abogados, el abogado tenia que obtener un doctorado en derecho civil, que sea en Oxford o en Cambridge. Esto era un requisito estricto. Ninguna persona que tomaba las órdenes sagradas era admisible a pesar de las funciones eclesiasticas del colegio y su interés con el derecho canónico. Esto se hacia para evitar un evidente conflicto de interés.</p>
<p>El candidato tenia que ser admitido como un abogado de los Arcos, elegido por la mayoria de los miembros del Colegio, aprobado por el Arzobispo de Canterbury dirigido al decano de los Arcos, y esta admisión tenia que ser precedida por la de un año en la Corte, conocida como “el año del silencio” en el cual el candidato no tenia permitido hablar.</p>
<p>Como ustedes se pueden imaginar, el proceso de calificación era severo. Estos eran los puros civilistas, que sean jueces en la Corte o abogados los proctors de la palabra “procurator” en Latin.</p>
<p>Estos doctores tenian un vasto y único conocimiento y la Corte Marítima inglesa era de esta manera dirigida por el derecho civil, las leyes de Oleron y las costumbres maritimas. Ellos formaron, crearon, inovaron en el campo del Derecho Marítimo substancial y procesal. Entre ellos, hasta su fin, se encontraba Lord Stowell, el Dr. Stephen Lushington y Sir Robert Phillimore, que fue el último juez civilista, todos estos que perpetuaron y aprobaron la útilización de la acción o arresto in rem.</p>
<p>Permítanme añadir más detalles.</p>
<p>Doctors’ Commons ocupaba un edificio magnifico detras de la Catedral de San Pablo (St. Paul’s Cathedral) donde se argumentaban los casos eclesiásticos y de derecho marítimo.</p>
<p>El lugar donde los Doctores se sentaban era suntuoso, tal como sus vestimentas. Los jueces en general se vestían con túnicas escarlatas, pelucas grises, capuchas academicas y gorras de terciopelo negras. Los proctors o abogados se vestian con togas de color azul marino con capuchas de su rango académico.</p>
<p>El autor ingles, Charles Dickens, en su novela David Copperfield describe Doctors’ Commons como “un viejo nicho perezoso &#8230; que tiene un antiguo monopolio en disputas entre naves y barcos” (“a lazy old nook&#8230;that has an ancient monopoly in disputes among ships and boats”).</p>
<p>La atmósfera tranquila del Doctors’ Commons fue transtornada en 1853 por la revelación del asunto Swabey.</p>
<p>El Señor Swabey era el secretario de la Corte Marítima inglesa o Doctors’</p>
<p>Commons que malversó en exceso de £75,000.00. Esto fue descubierto en Noviembre de 1853.</p>
<p>Este asunto provocó a que el parlamento britanico examine minuciosamente las funciones del Doctors’ Commons. Ademas, los gastos de la Corte se incrementaron de manera exhorbitante a causa del remplazo de dinero por estampillas y las grandes dificultades causadas por problemas de imprenta.</p>
<p>Estos gastos procesales enojaron a los proctors que ejercían en la Corte Marítima.</p>
<p>En 1857, la ley sobre la Corte de legalización de testamentos suprimió el privilegio especial de los civilistas para que ellos ejercieran exclusivamente el derecho marítimo. Esto en si, causó el fin de la existencia corporativa del Doctors’ Commons.</p>
<p>En Marzo de 1858, el Colegio de Civilistas y el Doctors’ Commons fueron liquidados. En 1859, se aproba una ley que permite a los abogados de common law de ejercer en frente de la Corte Marítima inglesa.</p>
<p>La sala comun del Doctors’ Commons fue demolida en 1861, su esplendida biblioteca dispersada. Varios volumes hoy día se encuentran en la secretaría de la Corte Marítima, o almacenados en el sótano de las Cortes Reales de Justica inglesa.</p>
<p><strong>9. TRANSICIÓN DEL DERECHO CIVIL AL COMMON LAW</strong></p>
<p>A pesar de la destrucción del Doctors’ Commons como una institución inglesa, algunos doctores continuaron a vivir y florecer. Sobre la custodia de estos doctores como jueces, la Corte Marítima pasó por una gran transición del derecho civil al common law, y al mismo tiempo, guardó su caracter civilista a pesar de esta transición. De hecho, la acción in rem sobrevivió y hoy día florece, pero de manera mas simplificada.</p>
<p>Por ejemplo, lo que hoy se llama el “Affidavit to Lead Warrant” se llamaba al principio del siglo 19, el “Affidavit of the cause of action”.</p>
<p>La notificación de la orden de arresto (warrant of arrest) se ha simplificado. En los comienzos del siglo 19, la orden era notificada a la nave por el Alguacil (Marshall) exhibiendo el original. Con el original en su mano, procedia a clavar una copia en el mastil, que en esa época era de madera. Esto se acompañaba con la practica pública de marcar con tiza un ancla enredada, simbolo de la jurisdicción de la Corte Marítima inglesa, en un lugar prominente en la cubierta de la nave. El Marshall entonces ejecutaba un certificado de notificación y lo presentaba a la secretaría de la Corte con el original de la orden de arresto.</p>
<p>Hoy día, la orden de arresto es notificada a la nave simplemente instalando con un scotch-tape la orden de arresto sobre el puente en frente de la timonera. Una vez notificada la orden de arresto, se notifica ademas a las autoridades portuarias, aduaneras y la autoridad de pilotaje.</p>
<p><strong>10. CONSERVACIÓN DE LA ACCIÓN IN REM</strong></p>
<p>La acción in rem es muy popular con los reclamantes marítimos que la pueden utilizar. Es de immensa conveniencia. Las naves, como todos lo sabemos, y como lo ha dicho la Corte Suprema de Canada “se esquivan” (they are “elusive”). La acción in rem tiene ventajas que faltan en la acción in personam que a menudo son dificiles si no imposible de iniciar. La acción in rem impone jurisdicción y abre el camino para obtener la garantía adecuada (security) en lieu de la nave y la paz que habrá al fin una satisfacción final. Si la garantía no se presenta, la Corte simplemente puede vender la “res” para satisfacer una decisión sobre la reclamación, sujeto a la cuestion de prioridades.</p>
<p><strong>11. LA CARTA DE GARANTÍA (LETTER OF UNDERTAKING)</strong></p>
<p>La garantía (security) es evidentemente de la mas gran importancia.</p>
<p>Es acá que la Carta de Garantía entra en el escenario. Seguro que se puede liberar la nave con una fianza o garantía bancaria, pero es la Carta de Garantía del P &amp; I Club que es utilizada más a menudo para liberar la nave de una acción in rem.</p>
<p>Por lo tanto, es muy importante que la Carta de Garantía sea adecuadamente redactada.</p>
<p>La Carta de Garantía debe ser muy clara en la descripción del beneficiario. Si cubre una perdida de carga, la parte que tiene el titulo de propriedad de la carga tiene que ser incluida y tambien los aseguradores de carga implicados.</p>
<p>La Carta de Garantía es emitida para evitar la acción in rem o arresto completamente ab initio o despues de la introducción de la acción in rem en la Corte y el arresto como consecuencia. El monto reclamado tiene que ser mencionado en la Carta de Garantía, más un tercio para cubrir los intereses y costos. Tendría que mencionar la corte local que tendria jurisdicción para escuchar el caso, y tendría que permanecer vigente hasta después de una decisión final (inclusive desde la corte de apelación hasta la corte mas alta del lugar del arresto) o después de un arreglo final y definitivo del caso.</p>
<p>La posibilidad o el fantasma de una acción in rem ha provocado arreglos bien antes de que el arresto se realice. La Clausula “refraining from arrest” es muy importante. En el caso de la nave ZEALAND BEATRIX, hace un año, esta nave cargó sacos de granos de cacao desde Abidjan, Costa de Marfil y Lagos, Nigeria.</p>
<p>Al llegar al puerto de Trois-Rivières, en el Rio San Lorenzo, Provincia de Quebec,</p>
<p>Canada, se notó que la bodega No. 3 estaba inundada con agua de mar. Inmediatamente peritos navales (surveyors) fueron nombrados por ambas partes, la carga y la nave. Los dueños de la carga, por sus abogados contactaron al corresponsal local del P &amp; I club y pudieron obtener un Carta de Garantía adecuada.</p>
<p>Los peritos navales estaban de acuerdo sobre la causa de la pérdida y el quantum de daños. Entonces, los abogados representando la carga se sentaron con el corresponsal del P &amp; I Club y la reclamación por daños a la carga fue arreglada inmediatemente sin la necesidad de arrestar la nave o introducir un pleito en la corte.</p>
<p><strong>12. CONCLUSIÓN</strong></p>
<p>Para concluir, la acción in rem es, sin ninguna duda, una arma procesal poderosa, y sugiero que tendria que formar parte del arsenal juridico o procesal de todas las juridicciones que tratan con reclamaciones marítimas, inclusive en relación a privilegios marítimos. Es de origen civilista y ¿por qué es utilizada principalmente por las juridicciones de common law? La gran paradoja es que es un proceso civil pero utilizado por las juridicciones del Common Law. De hecho, la mayoria de las jurisdicciones de derecho civil ignoran la acción in rem. Para los que no tienen este recurso procesal, les sugiero con humildad que una simple enmienda a los Codigos de Procedimento Civil, o una ley directa al efecto es todo lo que se necesita para introducir la acción in rem.</p>
<p>Muchas gracias.</p>
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		<title>THE ACTION IN REM</title>
		<link>https://demanpillet.com/en/the-action-in-rem/</link>
		<comments>https://demanpillet.com/en/the-action-in-rem/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Tue, 08 Sep 2015 08:40:23 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Benjamin Dubé]]></dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Unclassified]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://demanpillet.com/en/?p=742</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[BY MARC DE MAN About 25 years ago, when traveling to Buenos Aires, Argentina to handle a case in that interesting city, the late brilliant lawyer, Arturo Ravina, picked me up at my hotel and took me to a beautiful building on Calle Florida which housed the Naval Academy. There a gathering of the Argentinian...]]></description>
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<p style="text-align: center;"><strong>BY</strong></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><strong>MARC DE MAN</strong></p>
<p>About 25 years ago, when traveling to Buenos Aires, Argentina to handle a case in that interesting city, the late brilliant lawyer, Arturo Ravina, picked me up at my hotel and took me to a beautiful building on Calle Florida which housed the Naval Academy. There a gathering of the Argentinian Maritime Law Association was taking place, attended by such luminaries as Dr. Domingo Ray, Dr. Mathe, Dr. Lopez Saavedra and Dr. Cappagli. Dr. Chami was young man then and Jorge Radovich was quite humble in a corner, but always with that marvelous deep voice of his.</p>
<p>Without prior warning and preparation, Dr. Ravina simply asked me to address this illustrious audience. The rug was pulled from under my feet, but suddenly I blurted out and asked “Why do you not have the action in rem” and went on to set out the difficulties I experienced in arranging for the arrest of a ship at the Port of Buenos Aires and any further suggestions.<br />
My topic today is, simply put, the action in rem.</p>
<p><strong>1. ORIGINS</strong></p>
<p>What are its origins?</p>
<p>It is obviously a Roman law derivative.</p>
<p><strong>2. THE ACTION IN REM AND THE MARITIME LIEN</strong></p>
<p>Actio in rem &#8211; Actio in personam</p>
<p>In rem means in the thing itself. The action in rem is against an item of property and not against a person.</p>
<p>In Latin, in rem means “against or about a thing”. It derives from the word “res”, which means “the thing”.</p>
<p>It is the ship, or cargo, or freight, or even the proceeds of a sale, that is sued and not the owner of the ship, cargo or freight. It is the ship that suffers the consequences. The owner suffers the consequences if it is an action in personam.</p>
<p>It is the most pernicious and efficient of weapons used by those who have a claim against the ship, be it under Convention, or a statutory grant of jurisdiction or maritime custom.</p>
<p>The action in rem was inextricably intertwined with the maritime lien. The case of The Bold Buccleugh (1852) 7 MOO PC 267 is the leading authority on the essence of a maritime lien. It is the foundation for a proceeding in rem, which in turn is the legal machinery to perfect a right born at the moment the lien attaches. In other words a maritime lien is a claim or privilege upon a thing (res) to be carried into effect by legal process, namely the action in rem.</p>
<p>The question then arises in relation to the Civilian nature of this extremely efficient legal weapon.</p>
<p>To answer this question, we have to define Maritime Law.</p>
<p><strong>3. CIVILIAN RECOURSE – MARITIME LAW DEFINED</strong></p>
<p>Substantive Maritime Law is in itself a legal system, having its own particular law on various areas:</p>
<ul>
<li>sale (as regards sale of ship)</li>
<li>hire (as regards charter parties)</li>
<li>contract (as regards carriage of goods by sea)</li>
<li>insurance (marine insurance, undoubtedly one of the first forms of insurance)</li>
<li>corporate law</li>
<li>its own particular procedures (the action in rem, in personam and attachment</li>
<li>its own Courts, the Admiralty Courts and its own lex mercatoria (the lex mercatoria or general maritime law)</li>
</ul>
<p>Maritime Law also consists of modern international Conventions, including Conventions on collision, salvage, carriage of goods by sea, maritime liens and mortgages, and shipowners’ limitation. These Conventions have been able to bridge the gap between the two principal Western legal families, namely the Civil and the Common law and are applied similarly by the judicial institutions of different jurisdictions, such as the UK and France. These Conventions foster international harmonization of law, by promoting a constructive synthesis of the legal traditions from which they sprang.</p>
<p>It may further be stated that maritime law is a mixed legal system in its own right, found in all jurisdictions, including those belonging to only one major legal tradition. Maritime Law is Civilian in its origin with an infusion in the last two centuries of English common law principles and innovation.</p>
<p>Let me then delve into this aspect in greater detail.</p>
<p><strong>4. CONFLICT BETWEEN THE ENGLISH CIVILIANS AND COMMON LAWYERS</strong></p>
<p>It should be remembered that in England there was a strong Civilian trait for quite some time. In fact, there was a historically difficult relationship between the common law courts and the Admiralty Courts since the creation of the Admiralty Courts as far back as the late 13th century.</p>
<p>In fact, it took a full five hundred years into the late nineteenth century before the tension between the civilians and the common lawyers was resolved through the Admiralty Court as a unique judicial institution applying the Civil law and conferring its power in the form of Admiralty jurisdiction on the common law courts.</p>
<p><strong>5. ORIGINS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH HIGH COURT OF ADMIRALTY</strong></p>
<p>Originally, the English High Court of Admiralty was an instrument of the office of the Lord High Admiral. The English Crown delegated its Royal Prerogative in maritime matters to the Admiral. The Admiralty Court came into existence to deal with disputes within the Admiral’s jurisdiction.</p>
<p>More specifically, Roman law was taught at Oxford and Cambridge, but covered only probate and matrimonial law insofar as both were inherited from canon law, and maritime law, adopted from the lex mercantoria through the Bordeaux trade. The Roman law encompassed civil law developed mainly from customary law that was refined with case law and legislation. Canon law further refined court proceedings. Maritime Law adopted the Roman procedure of in rem actions, and the High Court of Admiralty in England, from the outset, used as a procedural tool the action in rem.</p>
<p>Another feature of the High Court of Admiralty was its application of principles of equity based on many sources such as Roman law and natural law.</p>
<p>It is interesting to emphasize the resentment of the Common Law Courts against the power exercised by the Civil Law Court of Admiralty. From 1296 onwards the common lawyers tried to limit the Admiralty jurisdiction to a restricted field covering only “things done upon the sea”.</p>
<p>However, the common law courts could not effectively deal in their subject and practice with pre-judgment attachments of ships. They could not apply the action in rem. This was exclusively part of the Court of Admiralty jurisdiction.</p>
<p><strong>6. LORD STOWELL – PRIZE LAW</strong></p>
<p>The Admiralty Court had a large resurgence in its civil jurisdiction in the early 1800&#8217;s due to its prize law jurisdiction. The great maritime wars of the period (the Napoleonic wars) gave rise to the introduction of prizes of war in the English jurisdiction. The prize that made it back to the capturing vessel’s country, namely England, would be sued in the Admiralty Court in rem against the vessel itself.</p>
<p>Lord Stowell, the then judge of Admiralty, raised the Admiralty Court at that time to an important position. There was a constant appeal to the Prize Court. The prize that was brought to England would be sued in the Admiralty Court in rem against the captured vessel itself. To convey clear title to its new owners the Prize Court had to condemn the vessel.</p>
<p><strong>7. EXTENSION OF THE JURISDICTION OF THE ADMIRALTY COURT</strong></p>
<p>In 1840, an Act of the British Parliament was passed to improve the practice and extend the jurisdiction of the Court. In that year, there was a movement for the revival of the English Admiralty jurisdiction. Admiralty Court Acts were passed in 1840, 1854, 1861 which provided broader and fuller jurisdiction to the High Court of Admiralty. Its general jurisdiction was extended to title and mortgages of ships, salvage, towage, necessaries, building, equipping and repairing ships, claims for damage to goods and bills of lading, seaman’s wages, etc. This certainly went considerably further than “a thing done upon the sea”.</p>
<p>During this time, great Civilian judges such as Dr. Stephen Lushington and Sir Robert Phillimore rendered important decisions. This was an epoch where the background showed the development of steam shipping, giving rise to increased commerce and increased incidents of salvage, collision and damages. All of this increased the importance of the Admiralty Court in its Civilian development. But lurking in the shadows were the common law lawyers and their resentment towards the Civilians.</p>
<p>Before dealing with the disastrous collapse of the Civilians, I need to describe to you who they were and how they developed.</p>
<p>As stated earlier, the Civilians were the descendants of the canon lawyers, and retained their heritage by continuing their monopoly over Ecclesiastical as well as Admiralty practice.</p>
<p>However, Henry VIII abolished the Faculties of Canon Law at Cambridge and Oxford. This suppression of the Canonists led them to become Civilians principally in the practice of Civil Law.</p>
<p><strong>8. DOCTORS’ COMMONS</strong></p>
<p>For many centuries, the advocates and judges of the Admiralty Court formed part of the “College of Civilians” or more particularly “Doctors’ Commons”.</p>
<p>Doctor’s Commons was an offspring of Trinity Hall, Cambridge, itself founded in 1350 as a college for study of the civil and canon laws modified by statute law.</p>
<p>Doctors’ Commons was the equivalent of a rather private club. The number of advocates at its incorporation comprised of 17 members, and in 1858 it reached 26 members. These members at the time had an absolute monopoly of Admiralty matters in England.</p>
<p>To become a Fellow of the College of Advocates, one had to have earned a doctorate in civil law, at either Oxford or Cambridge. This was a strict requirement. No person in holy orders was admissible despite the ecclesiastical functions of the College and its concern with canon law. It was done to avoid an obvious conflict of interest.</p>
<p>The candidate had to be admitted as an advocate of the Arches and elected by a majority of the Fellows of the College, approved by the Archbishop of Canterbury directed to the dean of the Arches, and this admission had to be preceded by one year’s Court attendance, known as the “Year of Silence” during which the candidate was not allowed to plead.</p>
<p>The qualification process, as you may well imagine was quite stringent. These were the pure CIVILIANS, both judges in the Admiralty Court and proctors (coming from the Latin word and tradition “procurator”).</p>
<p>These Doctors had a vast and unique knowledge and the Admiralty Court was thus governed by the civil law, the laws of Oleron, and the customs of the Admiralty. They fashioned, created innovated in the field of Admiralty Law and Procedure. Amongst them, until the end, you have Lord Stowell, Dr. Stephen Lushington and Sir Robert Phillimore (the last Civilian judge), all of whom perpetuated and approved the use of the arrest in rem.</p>
<p>Allow me to provide you with further details.</p>
<p>Doctors’ Commons occupied a magnificent building behind St. Paul’s Cathedral where the Admiralty and Ecclesiastical law disputes were argued.</p>
<p>The premises where the doctors sat were sumptuous as was their attire. As judges in general, they wore scarlet robes, grey wigs, academic hoods and black velvet doctors’ bonnets. As proctors they wore dark blue gowns with the hoods of their degree.</p>
<p>Charles Dickens in David Copperfield described Doctors’ Commons as “a lazy old nook&#8230;that has an ancient monopoly in disputes among ships and boats”.</p>
<p>This tranquil atmosphere of Doctors’ Commons was shattered in 1853 by the revelation of the Swabey affair.</p>
<p>Mr. Swabey was the Registrar of the Admiralty Court, who embezzled in excess of £75,000.00. This was discovered in November, 1853.</p>
<p>This affair prompted the British Parliament to examine closely the function of the Doctors’ Commons. In addition, the expenses of the Court became exorbitant due to the replacement of money by stamps and very difficult printing problems arose. These procedural expenses angered the proctors practicing in the Admiralty Court.</p>
<p>The Court of Probate Act of 1857 abolished the special privilege of the Civilians alone to practice Admiralty and thus, in turn, caused the end of their corporate existence.</p>
<p>In March, 1858, the College of Civilians or Doctors’ Commons was liquidated. In 1859, an Act was passed which enabled common law lawyers to practice before the Admiralty Court.</p>
<p>The common Hall of Doctors’ Commons was demolished in 1861, its splendid library dispersed, and many of its volumes remain today in the Admiralty registry or in storage in the basement of the Royal Courts of Justice.</p>
<p><strong>9. TRANSITION FROM THE CIVIL TO THE COMMON LAW</strong></p>
<p>Despite the destruction of the Doctors’ Commons as an English institution, a few doctors continued to live on and blossom. Under their care, the Admiralty Court underwent a great transition from the Civil to the Common law, but under their care, the Court retained its civilian character despite this transition. In fact, the action in rem survived and flourishes to this date, but in a much more streamlined fashion.</p>
<p>As an example, what is today called the Affidavit to Lead Warrant was called in the early 1800&#8217;s the Affidavit of the cause of action.</p>
<p>The service of the warrant of arrest has been simplified today. In the early 1800&#8217;s, the warrant was served upon the vessel by the Marshall by exhibiting the original and holding it to the main mast, then nailing a copy in its place. This was accompanied by the overt practice of chalking a fowled anchor, symbolic of the jurisdiction of the Admiralty Court on some prominent space topsides in addition to the service of the warrant. The Marshall then executed a certificate of service filed in the Registry together with the original warrant.</p>
<p>Today, this Warrant with the Statement of Claim and Affidavit to Lead Warrant are all served on board the vessel. The warrant is scotch-taped on the bridge in front of the wheelhouse. Upon service of the warrant of arrest, the same is served in my country, Canada, at the Pilotage Authority, the Port Authority and Customs Authority. The vessel is therefore paralyzed for all intents and purposes.</p>
<p><strong>10. MAINTENANCE OF THE ACTION IN REM</strong></p>
<p>The action in rem is very popular amongst maritime claimants that can make use of it. It is of immense convenience. Ships, as we all know, and as stated by the Canadian Supreme Court, are “elusive”. The action in rem can bring advantages which are lacking in an action in personam which may be difficult if not impossible to institute. The action in rem forces jurisdiction and opens the way to obtaining adequate security in lieu of the ship and peace of mind that there will be an ultimate satisfaction. If security is not provided, the Court may sell the “res” in order to satisfy the judgment for the claim, subject to the question of priorities.</p>
<p>Security is, of course, of the utmost importance.</p>
<p><strong>11. LETTER OF UNDERTAKING</strong></p>
<p>This is where the Letter of Undertaking comes into the picture. Yes, one can free a vessel with a bail bond or bank guarantee, but it is the P &amp; I Letter of Undertaking which is most often used to free the ship from an action in rem.</p>
<p>Therefore, it becomes imperative that the Letter of Undertaking be properly worded (set up LOU as an example).</p>
<p>The LOU must be very clear as to its beneficiary. If it covers a cargo loss, the party having title to the cargo has to be mentioned and the Cargo Underwriters involved.</p>
<p>It could be issued to avoid the action in rem/arrest all together or subsequent to the institution of the action in rem and consequent arrest. The sum sought should be that determined plus one third to cover interest and costs. It should state the local court, which should have the jurisdiction to hear the case, and it should remain valid after a final judgment (including Appeals up to the highest court of the land) or after settlement. In Canada, the local court is the Federal Court of Canada, and the highest court in the land is the Supreme Court.</p>
<p>The specter of the action in rem has prompted settlements well before even an arrest takes place. The clause “refraining from arrest” is very important example &#8211; the Zealand Beatrix.</p>
<p>One year ago, the Zealand Beatrix loaded bags of cocoa beans in Abidjan, Cote d’Ivoire and Lagos, Nigeria. When she berthed at Trois-Rivières in the St. Lawrence River, Province of Quebec, Hold No. 3 was flooded with sea water. Immediately surveyors were appointed. We, representing cargo interests, contacted the P &amp; I Club correspondent and obtained an adequate LOU. The surveyors agreed on the cause of the loss and quantum of damages. We then sat with the P &amp; I correspondent and the claim was settled immediately without the necessity to arrest the vessel or even institute legal proceedings.</p>
<p>The Release is provided if the LOU is satisfactory. The Release must be filed in the Registry of the Court.</p>
<p><strong>12. CONCLUSION</strong></p>
<p>To conclude, the action in rem is indeed a powerful weapon, and I submit to you that it should form part of the juridical arsenal of all the jurisdictions that deal with maritime claims, including maritime liens. It is civilian in origin. Therefore, why wait to introduce it in all the civilian jurisdictions? Why should it be exercised principally by common law jurisdictions? The great paradox is that it is a civilian procedure originally but used by the Common law jurisdictions. In fact, the majority of the Civilian jurisdictions ignore it. For those who do not have this procedural recourse, I humbly submit that a simple amendment to Civilian Codes of Procedure or a legislative enactment is all it may take to introduce the action in rem.</p>
<p>Thank you.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
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		<title>ASPECTS PRATIQUES DU RECOUVREMENT AU CANADA: VUE D’ENSEMBLE ET JURISPRUDENCE RÉCENTE</title>
		<link>https://demanpillet.com/en/aspects-pratiques-recouvrement-canada/</link>
		<comments>https://demanpillet.com/en/aspects-pratiques-recouvrement-canada/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Thu, 03 Sep 2015 13:21:57 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Benjamin Dubé]]></dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Unclassified]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://demanpillet.com/en/aspects-pratiques-recouvrement-canada/</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[PAR MARC DE MAN &#160; INTRODUCTION Bonjour mes amis. Permettez-moi de m’adresser à vous dans la langue de Molière. Mon sujet ce matin concerne le droit de recouvrement d’une perspective canadienne. J’essayerai d’être le plus pratique possible, d’éviter une analyse détaillée de la jurisprudence, et de me concentrer simplement sur les recours disponibles, les prérequis...]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p style="text-align: center;"><strong>PAR</strong></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><strong>MARC DE MAN</strong></p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p><strong>INTRODUCTION</strong></p>
<p>Bonjour mes amis.</p>
<p>Permettez-moi de m’adresser à vous dans la langue de Molière.</p>
<p>Mon sujet ce matin concerne le droit de recouvrement d’une perspective canadienne.</p>
<p>J’essayerai d’être le plus pratique possible, d’éviter une analyse détaillée de la jurisprudence, et de me concentrer simplement sur les recours disponibles, les prérequis juridictionnels, l’avis de réclamation, la prescription, la durée des causes, les honoraires, les déboursés, le cautionnement et la limitation qui seront traitées dans les réclamations de droit maritime, de droit aérien, de droit de transport ferroviaire et routier.</p>
<p>En matière maritime, le Canada, même s’il est considéré comme « quelques arpents de neige » par Voltaire, est une juridiction privilégiée puisque son système juridique émane de la Common Law anglaise et du droit civil du continent européen.  Dans la province de Québec, les systèmes juridiques de la France et de l’Angleterre se fusionnent, adoptant la Common Law dans certains domaines, et le Code Napoléon, amendé avec le temps, dans d’autres domaines.</p>
<p>Cette fusion des systèmes juridiques donne lieu à quatre remèdes légaux efficaces ou recours utilisés dans des situations où le créancier doit se protéger quand le débiteur est en position de dissiper ses biens avant un jugement final, ou lorsqu’il y a crainte qu’une fois un jugement final obtenu, il n’y aura pas de biens disponibles pour satisfaire à un jugement de la Cour, ou une sentence arbitrale contre le débiteur.</p>
<ol>
<li><strong>ACTION <em>IN REM</em></strong></li>
</ol>
<p>Le premier recours est l’action <em>in rem</em> contre le transporteur maritime.  Cette action est prévue spécifiquement dans les <em>Règles des Cours fédérales</em> (DORS/98-106).  Ce recours origine du droit romain et a été appliqué de l’époque médiévale jusqu’à présent par les Cours d’Amirauté anglaises.  C’est une action directe contre la <em>res</em> ou la chose en latin, généralement, le navire.  La Cour fédérale du Canada, à l’article 22 des Règles, expose les situations dans lesquelles on peut invoquer cette action.  <em>Inter alia</em>, ce recours est disponible aux propriétaires de cargaison qui ont souffert des dommages en raison de l’état de non-navigabilité du navire, ou encore pour les fournisseurs de mazout qui n’ont pas été payés par l’armateur, ainsi que les fournisseurs de biens et services au navire, etc.</p>
<p>Plus particulièrement, si un navire se trouve dans la juridiction canadienne, et qu’il cause des dommages considérables à une cargaison, le propriétaire de cette cargaison peut intenter une action <em>in rem</em> devant la Cour fédérale, par l’émission d’une Déclaration, accompagnée d’un affidavit pour obtenir un mandat de saisie.  Cet affidavit sera révisé par l’administrateur, fonctionnaire de la Cour fédérale, et si une réclamation est établie <em>prima facie</em> contre le navire en question, le mandat de saisie sera émis suivant les dispositions de la <em>Loi sur les Cours fédérales</em> (L.R.C. (1985), ch. F-7).</p>
<p>Ce mandat de saisie sera signifié à bord du navire par le shérif ou l’huissier.  Cette saisie paralyse effectivement le navire et il ne pourra être libéré à moins que l’armateur ne fournisse une caution adéquate, tel qu’une lettre d’engagement (<em>Letter of Undertaking</em>) du Club P &amp; I, une caution, ou toute autre garantie adéquate, ou qu’un règlement de la réclamation intervienne.  À défaut de pouvoir fournir une garantie, le navire ne pourra être relâché, et il pourra être vendu en justice à l’issue du litige.</p>
<p>L’action <em>in rem</em> agit de façon à empêcher que le navire en cause n’échappe à la juridiction canadienne sans l’assurance qu’une caution pour le paiement de la dette après jugement ne soit donnée.  C’est une procédure très utile et efficace, mais avec certaines limites.  Par exemple, elle ne s’applique qu’à l’égard du navire qui a causé le dommage.  De plus, si le navire a subi des dommages suite à un abordage, ou si le navire échoue, sa valeur sera d’autant diminuée et quelques fois, la caution ne sera pas disponible.  Finalement, l’action <em>in rem</em> ne s’étend pas aux autres biens du débiteur.</p>
<p>Un aspect intéressant de l’action <em>in rem</em> est que la procédure peut être intentée presqu’instantanément.  Nous recevons les documents par téléfax ou courrier électronique.  Nous n’avons pas besoin d’une procuration pour agir, et nous ne sommes pas obligés de fournir une caution pour saisir le navire.</p>
<p>L’action peut être intentée à n’importe quelle heure du jour ou de la nuit.  Dans une affaire, j’ai été obligé d’intenter la procédure à deux heures du matin.  La Cour fédérale a un numéro d’urgence.  Le fonctionnaire de la Cour, une fois rejoint, appelle la Gendarmerie royale du Canada qui ouvre les portes de la Cour, ce qui permet au fonctionnaire de la Cour d’émettre le mandat de saisie.</p>
<p>On utilise ce recours généralement contre les navires <em>tramp</em>.  Par contre, on évite de l’utiliser contre les navires <em>liner</em>, à moins que la réclamation ne soit très élevée.</p>
<ol start="2">
<li><strong>LA SAISIE DU NAVIRE JUMEAU (<em>SISTER-SHIP ARREST</em>)</strong></li>
</ol>
<p>La saisie du navire jumeau (ou <em>sister-ship arrest</em>) est le deuxième recours, introduit au Canada en février 1992.  À l’article 43(8) de la <em>Loi sur les Cours fédérales</em>, l’action <em>in rem</em> est étendue à l’égard de tout navire qui, au moment où l’action est intentée, appartient au véritable propriétaire du navire en cause dans l’action.</p>
<p>L’expression « véritable propriétaire » a été interprétée par la Cour fédérale du Canada comme étant synonyme de « propriétaire enregistré » du navire.  Cette interprétation a réduit l’efficacité de ce recours, mais si on produit un affidavit qui démontre une propriété commune, on constate que c’est un outil utile pour ceux qui font des réclamations contre des flottes maritimes.  De la même façon, nous ne devons pas déposer de caution, ni de procuration.</p>
<ol start="3">
<li><strong>L’INJONCTION MAREVA</strong></li>
</ol>
<p>Le troisième recours est l’injonction Mareva, ou <em>Restraining Order</em>.</p>
<p>Les critères pour son octroi sont les suivants:</p>
<ul>
<li>La demanderesse doit avoir une cause d’action contre la défenderesse à l’intérieur de la juridiction de la cour.</li>
<li>Tel que décidé par la Cour suprême du Canada, la demanderesse doit établir une cause <em>prima facie</em> solide sur les mérites.</li>
<li>La demanderesse doit établir que la défenderesse possède des biens à l’intérieur de la juridiction.</li>
<li>La demanderesse doit montrer un risque réel que la défenderesse a l’intention d’enlever ou de déménager ses biens de la juridiction canadienne ou disposer de ses biens dans la juridiction.</li>
<li>En raison du déménagement des biens de la défenderesse, la demanderesse sera incapable d’exécuter le jugement contre la défenderesse.</li>
<li>Comme c’est le cas avec toute injonction interlocutoire, le demandeur doit fournir une caution pour dommage.</li>
</ul>
<p>L’injonction Mareva est un recours <em>in personam</em>.  On dit au défendeur « si vous avez des biens, vous ne pouvez pas en disposer ».  Pour rendre exécutoire l’ordonnance du juge, les personnes qui détiennent les biens du débiteur, telles que les banques ou les tierces parties, doivent comparaître et se plier à l’ordonnance du juge.  Si la tierce partie est au courant de l’injonction mais agit contre l’ordonnance du juge, cette tierce partie sera condamnée pour outrage au tribunal.</p>
<p>L’injonction Mareva peut être présentée devant les cours des provinces de Common Law ainsi que devant la Cour fédérale du Canada qui a juridiction en matière maritime.</p>
<ol start="4">
<li><strong>LA SAISIE AVANT JUGEMENT</strong></li>
</ol>
<p>Le quatrième recours est la saisie avant jugement, appelé en France « la saisie conservatoire ».  C’est l’équivalent de l’injonction Mareva de la Common Law.  On la trouve dans le <em>Code de procédure civile du Québec</em>, dérivé de la procédure française.</p>
<p>L’article 733 du <em>Code de procédure civile du Québec</em> se lit comme suit:</p>
<blockquote><p>Le demandeur peut, avec l’autorisation d’un juge, faire saisir avant jugement les biens du défendeur, lorsqu’il est à craindre que sans cette mesure le recouvrement de sa créance ne soit mise en péril.</p></blockquote>
<p>Il faut noter qu’avec ce recours, le demandeur n’est pas obligé de présenter une caution pour dommage.  Par contre, la caution est un prérequis dans le cas de l’injonction Mareva.</p>
<p>La saisie avant jugement s’intente avec un bref devant les cours provinciales du Québec (la Cour supérieure ou la Cour du Québec) tandis que l’injonction Mareva est seulement présentable devant la Cour fédérale du Canada et les cours des provinces de Common Law.  Finalement, que cela soit la saisie avant jugement ou l’injonction Mareva, ces recours doivent être accompagnés d’affidavits détaillés signés par le demandeur ou son représentant, le tout présentable devant un juge.  Par contre, avec l’action <em>in rem</em> ou le <em>sister-ship arrest</em>, l’avocat de la demanderesse présente l’affidavit pour l’obtention du mandat de saisie à un fonctionnaire de la cour.  Il ne doit pas plaider devant un juge.  Pourvu que l’on tombe à l’intérieur des paramètres décrits par la <em>Loi sur les Cours fédérales</em> et ses Règles, le mandat de saisie est émis par le fonctionnaire de la cour.  Cela peut nous prendre une heure pour préparer une saisie <em>in rem</em>, un peu plus de temps pour le <em>sister-ship arrest</em>, mais l’injonction Mareva ou la saisie avant jugement nécessitent quelques jours de préparation.</p>
<p>Je viens de vous décrire les recours extraordinaires qui sont à la disposition de la partie demanderesse en matière de droit maritime.</p>
<p><strong>JURIDICTION DE LA COUR FÉDÉRALE DU CANADA</strong></p>
<p>Ce qu’il faut garder à l’esprit c’est que la Cour fédérale du Canada a juridiction partout au Canada.  C’est à dire que si on intente une poursuite pour perte de cargaison alors que le navire se trouve au port de Vancouver, province de la Colombie-Britannique, l’action peut être intentée à Montréal, province de Québec.</p>
<p><strong>JURIDICTION CONCOMITANTE (<em>CONCURRENT</em>)</strong></p>
<p>Un autre aspect à considérer est que les cours provinciales ont une juridiction concomitante avec la Cour fédérale du Canada, mais ces cours provinciales n’appliquent pas les recours extraordinaires de l’action <em>in rem</em> et le <em>sister-ship arrest</em>.  Ces recours peuvent uniquement être exercés par la Cour fédérale qui a compétence en matière d&#8217;amirauté et d&#8217;aviation.  En fait, la Cour fédérale applique la loi fédérale.  Les cours provinciales peuvent appliquer la loi fédérale ainsi que la loi provinciale.  En fait, elles ont une juridiction plus vaste.</p>
<p>Lorsque nous recevons un dossier, une des premières questions que nous nous posons est la suivante: dans quelle cour devons-nous intenter la poursuite?</p>
<p><strong>JURIDICTION EN GÉNÉRAL</strong></p>
<p>Un deuxième aspect à considérer d’un point de vue pratique est celui de la juridiction.</p>
<p>En 2001, le Parlement canadien a introduit la <em>Loi sur la responsabilité en matière maritime</em> (L.C. 2001, ch. 6).  L’article 46(1)(e) prévoit ce qui suit:</p>
<blockquote><p>46 (1) Lorsqu’un contrat de transport de marchandises par eau prévoit le renvoi de toute créance découlant du contrat à une cour de justice ou à d’arbitrage en un lieu situé à l’étranger, le réclamant peut, à son choix, intenter une procédure judiciaire ou arbitrale au Canada devant un tribunal qui serait compétent dans le cas où le contrat aurait prévu le renvoi de la créance au Canada, si l’une ou l’autre des conditions suivants existe:</p>
<p>a)         le port de chargement ou de déchargement &#8211; prévu au contrat ou effective &#8211; est situé au Canada;</p>
<p>b)         l’autre partie a au Canada sa résidence, un établissement, une succursale ou une agence;</p>
<p>c)         le contrat a été conclu au Canada.</p></blockquote>
<p>Cette disposition élimine l’application des fameuses clauses de juridiction qu’on retrouve souvent dans les connaissements.</p>
<p>Une clause de juridiction typique se lit comme suit:</p>
<blockquote><p>Any claim or dispute whatsoever arising in connection with the carriage under the Bill of Lading shall exclusively be governed by English law and determined by the High Court of London.</p></blockquote>
<p>Le conflit entre la disposition législative et une clause de juridiction insérée dans un connaissement a donné lieu à plusieurs recours en injonction anti-procédures entre les cours canadiennes et anglaises. Sans entrer dans les détails de la jurisprudence, il suffit de mentionner le cas le pus récent, soit l&#8217;arrêt <em>Mazda Canada Inc.</em> v. <em>Mitsuit OSK Lines et al.</em> (2007 FC 916) qui a mentionnéque l&#8217;intérêt public canadien a été énoncé dans l&#8217;article 46.</p>
<p>Si un des éléments de l’article 46 est présent dans un connaissement maritime, ceci constitue une connexion réelle et substantielle avec le Canada et on ne doit pas accorder de l&#8217;importance à la clause de juridiction qui se trouve à l’endos du connaissement.</p>
<p>En fait, l’article 46 de la <em>Loi sur la responsabilité maritime</em> élimine complètement les complications qui sont survenues aux États-Unis en raison de l’arrêt SKY REEFER (1995) de la Cour suprême des États-Unis ((94-623), 515 U.S. 528 (1995)).</p>
<p><strong>PRESCRIPTION</strong></p>
<p>En matière maritime, le Canada est sujet aux règles de La Haye-Visby.  Cela veut dire que la poursuite pour perte ou dommages à la cargaison doit être intentée dans l’année de la date de livraison de la marchandise, ou la date à laquelle cargaison aurait dû être livrée.</p>
<p><strong>AVIS DE PERTE</strong></p>
<p>Les personnes qui ont un intérêt dans la cargaison, que cela soit les propriétaires de la cargaison ou les assureurs de la cargaison, doivent émettre un avis de perte par écrit dès qu’ils ont connaissance de la perte.</p>
<p><strong>LIMITATION DE RESPONSABILITÉ</strong></p>
<p>Les Règles de la Haye-Visby à l’article IV(5)(a) prévoient que si l’expéditeur n’a pas déclaré la nature et la valeur de la cargaison avant l’expédition et ne l’a pas insérée dans le connaissement maritime, le navire et l’armateur seront responsables pour la perte ou le dommage de la cargaison seulement d’un montant le plus élevé de 666,67 droits de tirage spéciaux par paquet ou unité (un droit de tirage spécial vaut 1,68 $ Canadien aujourd’hui) ou 2 droits de tirage spéciaux par kilo du poids brut de la cargaison perdue ou endommagée.  Cette limitation est plus élevée que la limitation de COGSA qui s’applique aux réclamants américains.</p>
<p>Le montant total à recevoir est calculé en prenant en considération la valeur de la cargaison au moment et à l&#8217;endroit où le cargo a été déchargé ou aurait dû être déchargé du navire, conformément au contrat de transport.</p>
<p>La valeur de la cargaison est établie selon le cours en bourse en vigueur, ou s&#8217;il n&#8217;y en n&#8217;a pas, selon la valeur courante du marché pour une cargaison de même nature et de même quantité.</p>
<p>Lorsqu&#8217;un conteneur, une palette ou autre article similaire de transport est utilisé pour consolider la cargaison, le nombre de paquets, parcelles ou unités énoncé dans le connaissement sera pris en considération.  Par exemple, si un conteneur contient 500 boîtes de paires de chaussures, chaque boîte sera considérée comme une unité ou un paquet.</p>
<p>Il existe aussi une autre limitation qui est prévue dans la Convention de 1976 sur la limitation de responsabilité en matière de créances maritimes avec le Protocole de 1996.  Cette limitation est invoquée par l’armateur lorsque la perte de la cargaison est considérable.  Autant les Règles de La Haye-Visby que la <em>Convention de 1976 sur la limitation de la responsabilité en matière de créances maritimes</em> imposent des limitations qui sont pratiquement impossibles de s’affranchir.  Ceci vient d’être décidé par la Cour suprême du Canada le 23 avril 2014 dans l’arrêt <em>Peramoco Inc. </em>c<em>. Société TELUS Communications</em> [2014] 1 RCS 621.</p>
<p>La Convention sur la limitation de responsabilité en matière de créance maritime prévoit la création d’un fonds calculé sur la base du tonnage du navire et impose une limitation de responsabilité qui s’applique à toutes les réclamations de cargaison qui proviennent du même incident.</p>
<p><strong>TRANSPORT AÉRIEN</strong></p>
<p>Le Canada a adopté la <em>Loi sur le transport aérien</em> (L.R.C. (1985), ch. C-26) et ses amendements qui incorporent la Convention de Varsovie et ses protocoles ainsi que la Convention de Montréal.</p>
<p>Pour les réclamations de perte ou dommages à la cargaison, la poursuite contre le transporteur aérien doit être introduite au plus tard dans les deux ans suivant de la date d’arrivée ou de l’arrivée attendue de l’avion, ou encore de la date à laquelle le transport a été interrompu.  La limitation est de 19 droits de tirage spéciaux par kilo, ou, en dollars canadiens, 31,92 $ par kilo.</p>
<p>Il est difficile d&#8217;exclure cette limitation de responsabilité en cas de faute lourde et/ou grossière négligence car selon la Convention de Montréal, on ne peut plus invoquer cet argument.</p>
<p>Au Canada, les cours provinciales ainsi que la Cour fédérale ont juridiction concomitante pour entendre la cause contre le transporteur aérien.</p>
<p>L’avis de perte doit être fait par écrit et présenté dans les 14 jours de la date de réception de la cargaison.  Dans les cas de retard de la livraison, l’avis écrit doit être présenté dans les 21 jours de la date à laquelle la cargaison aurait dû arriver.</p>
<p><strong>TRANSPORT TERRESTRE</strong></p>
<p>Le transport terrestre est gouverné par les lois de chaque province au Canada.  Si le contrat de transport entre le camionneur et l’expéditeur intervient dans la province de Québec, la prescription est de trois ans de la date de livraison de la cargaison ou de la date à laquelle la cargaison aurait dû être livrée.  Au Québec, suivant la <em>Loi sur les transports</em> (Chap. T-12) et ses règlements, le camionneur limite sa responsabilité à 4,41 $ par kilo à moins que l’expéditeur n’ait déclaré une valeur plus élevée au connaissement.  Cette limitation de responsabilité peut être mise de côté si on est capable de faire la preuve d’une faute lourde ou de négligence grossière de la part du camionneur.</p>
<p>L’avis écrit de la perte, de dommages ou de délai de livraison de la marchandise doit décrire l’origine, la destination, la date de l’expédition et le montant estimé de la réclamation.  Cet avis doit être présenté au camionneur 60 jours après la livraison, et s’il n’y a pas de livraison, dans un délai de neuf mois de la date d’expédition.</p>
<p>La réclamation finale avec preuve de paiement du fret doit être présentée dans un délai de neuf mois suivant la date de l’expédition.</p>
<p>J’aimerais dire quelques mots sur le détournement ou <em>hijacking</em> à main armée pour voler les conteneurs et leur contenu.  Généralement, ce type d&#8217;événement survient dans les cas de cargaisons de métaux, telles que les anodes de cuivre ou autres cargaisons similaires.</p>
<p>La défense de « cas fortuit » ou « force majeure » est inévitablement invoquée par le camionneur dans une situation de vol à main armée.</p>
<p>L’honorable Hélène Poulin de la Cour supérieure du Québec, dans l’arrêt <em>Nexans Canada </em>c<em>. Papineau International, s.e.c.</em> (2008 QCCS 5553, confirmé en Cour d’appel, 2010 QCCA 1682), cite l’article 2049 du <em>Code civil du Québec</em>, qui prévoit que le transporteur est responsable, à moins qu’il ne prouve la force majeure.</p>
<p>En ce qui concerne le <em>hijacking</em> ou le détournement à main armée, la doctrine et la jurisprudence exigent trois caractéristiques pour que l’incident puisse être considéré comme étant une « force majeure ».  La première est l’imprévisibilité, la seconde, un événement irrésistible et la troisième, des causes externes avec les mêmes caractéristiques.</p>
<p>La Cour a décidé que les camionneurs sont obligés de prendre toutes les précautions normales pour prévenir le vol.  Ils ne devraient d’aucune façon faciliter la perpétration du vol ou commettre une faute.  Ainsi, la force majeure ou le cas fortuit n’est pas une défense pour le camionneur dans les cas de <em>hijacking</em> ou de détournement à main armée s’il y a quelqu’élément de négligence de la part du camionneur.</p>
<p><strong>TRANSPORT FERROVIAIRE</strong></p>
<p>Les compagnies de chemins de fer sont régies par la <em>Loi sur les transports au Canada</em>, (L.C. 1996, ch. 10).</p>
<p>L’article 137 de cette Loi prévoit que la compagnie de chemins de fer ne peut pas limiter ou s’exonérer de sa responsabilité envers l’expéditeur à moins que cela soit fait par convention écrite ou contrat de taux de fret confidentiel signé par l’expéditeur ou une association représentant l’expéditeur.</p>
<p>L’arrêt <em>Boutique Jacob </em>c<em>. Canadian Pacific Railway</em>, en première instance et en appel, a clarifié la portée de cette convention écrite.</p>
<p>En première instance (2006 FC 217), la Cour fédérale a déterminé que Canadian Pacific Railway (« CPR ») ne pouvait limiter sa responsabilité parce qu’il n’avait pas conclu une entente écrite ou un contrat de taux de fret confidentiel avec l’expéditeur ou une association représentant l’expéditeur.</p>
<p>Il s’agissait d’un cas de déraillement de train et Boutique Jacob a poursuivi le transporteur maritime n’opérant pas de navire (NVOCC), le transitaire, le transporteur maritime OOCL et le transporteur ferroviaire CPR.  La seule partie tenue responsable des dommages par la Cour fédérale en première instance fut le transporteur ferroviaire CPR qui ne pouvait limiter sa responsabilité.</p>
<p>La Cour d’appel a renversé la décision (2008 FCA 85) et a décidé, selon une étrange logique, que l’expéditeur en l’espèce était le transporteur maritime OOCL et non pas l’expéditeur réel Boutique Jacob.</p>
<p>La Cour d’appel a considéré qu’OOCL avait directement contracté avec le transporteur ferroviaire CPR par le biais d’un contrat de taux de fret confidentiel et que c’est OOCL qui avait remis le conteneur de marchandises à CPR à Vancouver.  Aussi, il y avait, tel que requis par l’article 137 de la <em>Loi sur les transports au Canada</em>, une entente entre le transporteur ferroviaire et l’expéditeur.  Cependant, il est à remarquer que cette entente n’était pas signée par les parties.</p>
<p>La Cour d’appel a décidé que cette entente non signée permettait au transporteur ferroviaire de limiter sa responsabilité à un montant équivalant à la limitation de responsabilité de la compagnie maritime prévu au connaissement maritime qui était en l’occurrence 2,00 $US par livre du poids brut des biens endommagés et/ou perdus.  Ainsi, le transporteur ferroviaire a été condamné à verser le montant de 1 432,89 $C au lieu du montant de 71 550,47 $C réclamé.</p>
<p>La Cour d’appel a de plus conclu que le transporteur ferroviaire aurait pu, en tout état de cause, limiter sa responsabilité en vertu des clauses Himalaya contenues dans les connaissements maritimes d’OOCL ainsi que dans les connaissements du transporteur maritime n’opérant pas de navire (NVOCC).</p>
<p>Cette cause n’a pas été portée en appel à la Cour suprême du Canada.</p>
<p>Par conséquent, la prescription pour poursuivre le transporteur ferroviaire dans un tel cas est d’un an et l’avis de perte à donner à ce transporteur est similaire à celui qui devrait être présenté au transporteur maritime.</p>
<p><strong>CAUTIONNEMENT</strong></p>
<p>Le cautionnement est requis seulement si on intente le recours de l’injonction Mareva.</p>
<p>Un autre type de cautionnement existe en cour, qu’on appelle le cautionnement pour frais.  Ce cautionnement est exigé par la partie défenderesse de la partie demanderesse si cette dernière est une entité légale dont le siège social est à l’étranger.  Ce cautionnement pour frais est gardé habituellement dans le compte en fidéicommis de l’avocat de la partie demanderesse, et la partie défenderesse aura le droit de se faire payer les frais légaux à même ce montant si la Cour décidait que la partie demanderesse était responsable des dépens au terme du litige.  Si au terme du litige, aucun dépens n&#8217;est payable par la partie demanderesse, le montant du cautaionnement lui sera remboursé.</p>
<p><strong>GESTION DES CAUSES</strong></p>
<p>Les causes devant la Cour fédérale du Canada, qu’elles soient de droit maritime, droit aérien ou autres, sont entendues en moyenne deux ans après leur institution s’il n’y a pas, dans l’intervalle, un règlement entre les parties.  Le même délai s’applique aux actions intentées devant les cours provinciales.  Ce délai est approximatif.  En Cour fédérale, les juges s’impliquent personnellement dans la gestion des causes, et ils encouragent la médiation et l’évaluation neutredu dossier pour obtenir des règlements.  Chaque cause a un juge attitré qui gère le dossier.  En cour provinciale du Québec, une des parties peut demander au juge en chef qu’un juge soit nommé pour agir comme médiateur dans la dispute.  La médiation est fondée sur la bonne foi de toutes les parties qui doivent montrer le désir d’en arriver à un règlement.  C’est une procédure intéressante puisque les parties elles-mêmes doivent présenter leur position au juge et ce, sans argumentation de la part des avocats.</p>
<p><strong>HONORAIRES DES AVOCATS</strong></p>
<p>Les honoraires sont décidés entre l’avocat et son client.  Dans notre juridiction, s’il y a entente entre l’avocat et son client, l’avocat peur agir sur une base de pourcentage du recouvrement plus les déboursés.  Le pourcentage pour une réclamation pour perte à la cargaison est normalement fixé à 25 % du recouvrement, plus les déboursés.  Il peut y avoir plusieurs variantes de cette formule.</p>
<p>J’ai déjà vu des pourcentages plus hauts, des pourcentages plus bas, des pourcentages basés sur un recouvrement de base à un taux et des pourcentages plus bas au fur et à mesure que le montant du règlement est plus haut.  J’ai déjà vu une combinaison de pourcentage et taux horaire plus les déboursés.  Dans certains cas, l’avocat peut demander de se faire payer à un taux horaire plus bas, mais s’il y a un recouvrement, il peut arriver à un pourcentage convenu et rembourser le montant reçu sur la base d’un taux horaire.</p>
<p>S’il n’y a pas d’entente sur la base d’un pourcentage, l’avocat demandera qu’il soit payé sur une base de taux horaire.  Les taux horaires au Canada peuvent varier entre 250 $ et 650 $ en fonction de l’expérience ou de l’ancienneté de l’avocat.  En pratique, l’avocat qui agit pour la partie demanderesse agit sur une base de pourcentage, et l’avocat de la partie défenderesse agit sur une base de taux horaire.  Si nous recevons un dossier de nos collègues américains, nous facturons habituellement deux tiers d’un tiers du recouvrement (⅔ de ⅓).</p>
<p><strong>FRAIS</strong></p>
<p>Une distinction importante doit se faire entre les frais judiciaires et les frais extra-judiciaires.</p>
<p>Les frais judiciaires sont ceux prévus par les règles de procédure de chaque cour.  Ces frais comportent les frais pour intenter l’action, les interrogatoires au préalable, etc.  Ils sont payables par la partie perdante si la cour accorde à la partie demanderesse le paiement des dépens.</p>
<p>Les honoraires des avocats constituent les frais extra-judiciaires et doivent être payés par le client, même si le client gagne sa cause.  La partie perdante en général ne paie pas les honoraires de l’avocat de la partie gagnante.</p>
<p>Exceptionnellement, la Cour fédérale peut accorder des frais avocat-client (<em>solicitor-client</em>) mais seulement dans des cas où l’avocat de la partie perdante a agi d’une façon outrageusement abusive.  Ceci existe très rarement.</p>
<p><strong>DÉBOURSÉS</strong></p>
<p>Les déboursés sont généralement relativement bas.  Ils incluent le coût initial pour émettre la première procédure légale, les frais du huissier pour la signification de la procédure initiale, les coûts des sténographes qui procèdent à la transcription des interrogatoires au préalable, les taxis pour se rendre à la cour, les frais d’appels interurbains, les photocopies, etc., bref tout ce qui est payé à même la poche de l’avocat (<em>out of pocket expenses</em>).  Si la cour rend jugement dans une cause, une partie de ces déboursés peut être incluse comme frais accordés à la partie gagnante.  Les déboursés sont toujours chargés au compte du client, et sont payables par le client à l’avocat, qu’il agisse sur une base de pourcentage ou sur un base de taux horaire.</p>
<p><strong>INTÉRÊTS</strong></p>
<p>Les intérêts avant jugement sont attribués comme partie intégrante des dommages d’après le principe du droit civil &#8211; <em>restitutio in integrum</em>.  Dans les causes de perte de cargaison, ces intérêts courent à compter de la date de la livraison.</p>
<p>Le taux d’intérêt avant jugement est à la discrétion de la cour.  Si on réclame le taux commercial, et qu’il est prouvé, la cour pourra l’ordonner.</p>
<p>Les intérêts après jugement sur le montant dû ainsi que les intérêts avant jugement sont régis par la loi de la province où la cause d’action a eu lieu, et si la cause n’est pas survenue dans une province, au taux que la Cour fédérale considère raisonnable.  Ces intérêts sont parfois alloués au taux légal de 5 % par an tel que prévu par la <em>Loi sur l’intérêt</em> (L.R.C. (1985), ch. 1-15).</p>
<p>Néanmoins, la cour garde une certaine discrétion pour choisir un taux différent, comme, par exemple, une moyenne du taux commercial.</p>
<p><strong>CONCLUSION</strong></p>
<p>Quelques mots pour vous informer que le Canada n’a pas ratifié les règles d’Hambourg.</p>
<p>De plus, les Règles de Rotterdam sont contestées en raison du fait que le Canada est une juridiction de “contrats-volumes”.  D’après l’article 80 des Règles de Rotterdam, les parties peuvent déroger à ces obligations en présence de contrats-volumes qui sont définis de façon très large.</p>
<p>Merci infiniment pour votre patience et attention.</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
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		<title>PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF CANADIAN RECOVERY LAW: OVERVIEW AND NEW CASE UPDATE</title>
		<link>https://demanpillet.com/en/practical-aspects-of-canadian-recovery-law-overview-and-new-case-update/</link>
		<comments>https://demanpillet.com/en/practical-aspects-of-canadian-recovery-law-overview-and-new-case-update/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Wed, 02 Sep 2015 12:47:21 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Benjamin Dubé]]></dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Unclassified]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://demanpillet.com/en/?p=764</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[By Marc de Man INTRODUCTION My topic today is recovery law from a Canadian perspective. The key aspect to consider is that of practicality. I shall try to be as practical as possible, and avoid detailed analysis of cases, and simply concentrate on the recourses available, jurisdictional requirements, notice of claim and time to sue,...]]></description>
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<h4 style="text-align: center;">By Marc de Man</h4>
<p><strong>INTRODUCTION</strong></p>
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<p>My topic today is recovery law from a Canadian perspective.</p>
<p>The key aspect to consider is that of practicality. I shall try to be as practical as possible, and avoid detailed analysis of cases, and simply concentrate on the recourses available, jurisdictional requirements, notice of claim and time to sue, length of cases, fees, disbursements, security and limitation. I shall deal with these topics in maritime, air, rail and motor claims wherever applicable.</p>
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<p><strong>MARITIME CLAIMS &#8211; COMMON LAW/CIVIL LAW</strong></p>
<p>In maritime matters, Canada is a privileged jurisdiction in that it has a legal system derived from both the Common Law and the European Continental Civil Law. In the Province of Quebec, the juridical systems of England and France blend together, adopting the Common Law in certain areas and the Napoleonic Code, or Civil Law as amended in others.</p>
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<div class="layoutArea"> <strong>FOUR RECOURSES</strong></div>
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<p>The fusion of legal systems has given rise to four effective legal remedies or recourses used in situations wherein the claim of the creditor has to be protected when the Debtor is in a position to dissipate its assets prior to a final judgment, or where there is fear that upon the obtaining of a final judgment, there will be no funds available to satisfy a Court judgment or arbitration award against the Debtors.</p>
<p><strong>1. ACTION <em>IN REM</em></strong></p>
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<p>The first such recourse is the action <em>in rem</em> in claims against the ocean carrier. This action is specifically provided by the procedural Rules of the Federal Court of Canada. It originates in the Roman Law and was applied, from medieval times to the present, by the English Admiralty Courts. It is a direct action against the <em>res</em> (or “thing” in Latin), generally the ship. The Canadian <em>Federal Courts Act</em>, at section 22, provides for the circumstances where the action <em>in rem</em> may be invoked. The recourse is available, <em>inter alia</em>, for cargo owners who have suffered damage due to the unseaworthiness of the vessel, for bunker suppliers who have not been paid by the ship, for suppliers of necessaries, etc. Thus, if a ship enters into the Canadian jurisdiction, and it has caused (say) extensive damage to cargo, the cargo claimant will institute an action in rem in the Federal Court through the issuance of a Statement of Claim, accompanied by an Affidavit to Lead Warrant. The affidavit will be reviewed by the District Administrator or Prothonotary of the Federal Court, and if it establishes a valid <em>prima facie</em> claim against the particular ship in accordance with the <em>Federal Courts Act</em>, the warrant of arrest will be issued.</p>
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<p>The warrant is then served upon the ship itself by the Sheriff or Bailiff. In the old times, a copy of the warrant of arrest was nailed on the mast of the vessel and a fouled anchor was drawn with chalk on the deck of the ship. Today, wooden masts are rare, and the Sheriff or Bailiff will scotch tape the warrant of arrest on the bridge in front of the helm. The arrest <em>in rem</em> effectively paralyses the ship where she is berthed, and the warrant will be released only upon the ship providing adequate security for the claim, such as a P &amp; I Club Letter of Undertaking, a bail bond, or other suitable guarantee, or settlement of the main action, or if not, until the ship is sold in justice.</p>
<p>The action <em>in rem</em> is thus specifically designed to prevent the culprit ship from escaping the jurisdiction without some assurance that there is security for the debt after judgment. Although a very useful procedure, the action in rem has limitations. It can only be asserted against the ship that caused the damage. If the ship has collided, or run aground, there may be no value to her, and sometimes no security can be obtained. Finally, it does not extend to other assets belonging to the Debtor.</p>
<p>The interesting aspect of the action <em>in rem</em> is the fact that it can be instituted almost instantly. We receive the documents by telefax or e-mail. Unlike many other jurisdictions, there is no need to have a formal power of attorney to act, nor is it necessary to put up security. Security for costs in the case of a foreign Plaintiff, however, may be requested later in the proceedings but not at the moment of the arrest.</p>
<p>Arrest proceedings may be instituted at any time during the day or night. In one case, I had to institute arrest proceedings at 2:00 AM. The Court has an emergency number. The Court clerk, once he is contacted, calls the RCMP who in turn opens the doors to the court house, and this enables the warrant of arrest to be issued by the court clerk.</p>
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<p>We use it to generally arrest tramp vessels, but avoid using it against liner vessels, unless the claim is unusually high.</p>
<p><strong>2. SISTERSHIP ARREST</strong></p>
<p>The sistership arrest is the second recourse, which was introduced in Canada during the month of February, 1992. At section 43(8) of the Canadian <em>Federal Courts Act</em>, the action <em>in rem</em> was extended to any vessel, which at the time of the institution of the action was beneficially owned by the person who was the owner of the ship which was the subject of the action. The term “beneficial owner” becomes important.</p>
<p>It has been interpreted by the Federal Court of Canada to mean the same as the “registered owner”. This interpretation has somewhat restricted the application of this recourse, but if sufficient evidence is produced by way of affidavit to show common ownership, it has proved to be a very useful tool for claimants against shipping fleets. Again, there is no need to put up security and no need to present a power of attorney.</p>
<p><strong>3. MAREVA INJUNCTION</strong></p>
<p>The Mareva Injunction or Restraining Order is the third recourse, and the criteria to grant it are the following:</p>
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<li>The Plaintiff must have a cause of action against the Defendant within the jurisdiction of the court;</li>
<li>As decided by the Canadian Supreme Court, the Plaintiff must establish that it has a strong <em>prima facie</em> case on the merits;</li>
<li>The Plaintiff must satisfy that the Defendant has assets within the jurisdiction;</li>
<li>The Plaintiff must show a real risk that the Defendant will remove its assets from the jurisdiction or dispose of them within the jurisdiction. This has been called the heart and core of the Mareva Injunction. The Canadian courts tend to require rather conclusive evidence of unusual activity motivated by some fraudulent intent.</li>
<li>As a result of the Defendant’s disposal of assets, the Plaintiff will be unable to execute judgment against it;</li>
<li>As with all interlocutory injunctions, the Plaintiff must give an undertaking as to damage.The Mareva Injunction does not operate as an attachment on property, but is relief <em>in personam</em> which restrains the owner of the assets from dealing with them. The Defendant is told &#8220;if you have assets, do not dispose of them&#8221;. In order to enforce this order, the persons holding the assets, such as banks or other third parties have to come into the picture. Thus the injunction has a direct effect on third parties (banks, financial institutions) who are notified of the injunction and who hold the assets comprised in the order. If the third party knows of the injunction but breaches it, it would be held in contempt of court.</li>
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<p>The Mareva Injunction can be presented in all the Canadian courts of Common Law jurisdiction, including, of course, the Federal Court of Canada which has jurisdiction over shipping and admiralty matters.</p>
<p><strong>4. SEIZURE BEFORE JUDGMENT</strong></p>
<p>The fourth recourse is the seizure before judgment, or <em>la saisie avant jugement</em>, in France, called <em>la saisie conservatoire</em>, or conservatory seizure. This is the equivalent of the Mareva Injunction, but in the Civil Law, derived from the French procedure. The <em>Quebec Code of Civil Procedure</em> at article 733 provides as follows:</p>
<blockquote><p>“The Plaintiff may, with the authorization of a judge, seize before judgment the property of the Defendant, when there is reason to fear that without this remedy the recovery of his debt may be put in jeopardy.”</p></blockquote>
<p>Note that with the seizure before judgment, the Plaintiff is not obliged to give an undertaking as to damage. This is a requirement with the Mareva Injunction. The seizure before judgment is presented by way of a writ in the Quebec provincial courts whereas the Mareva Injunction is only presentable in the Federal Court of Canada and in the Canadian provincial courts of Common Law jurisdictions. Finally in both cases, the Mareva Injunction and seizure before judgment, elaborate affidavits signed by the Plaintiff or his representative have to be presented, and the matter has to be presented in front of a judge. With the arrest <em>in rem</em> and the sistership arrest, Plaintiff’s lawyer can present the Affidavit to Lead Warrant and no judge has to be consulted. As long as one falls within the parameters set out in the <em>Federal Courts Act</em> and its Rules, the arrest is issued by the Court clerk. It may take as little as one hour to prepare an arrest <em>in rem</em>. The sistership arrest, a little longer, but the Mareva Injunction and seizure before judgment could take a few days to prepare.</p>
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<p>These then are the extraordinary recourses available to the Plaintiff, principally in shipping matters. Obviously they are not required in every case. An ordinary action initiated by a Statement of Claim in the Federal Court of Canada may be sufficient, or a Motion to Institute Proceedings in the Quebec Superior Court, and a similar procedure in the rest of the Canadian provinces.</p>
<h4>JURISDICTION OF THE FEDERAL COURT OF CANADA</h4>
<p>What is important to bear in mind is that the Federal Court of Canada has jurisdiction throughout the whole of Canada. Therefore, if you institute a cargo claim when the vessel has berthed in Vancouver, Province of British Columbia, the action may be filed in Montreal, Province of Quebec.</p>
<h4>CONCURRENT JURISDICTION</h4>
<p>Another point to bear in mind is that the local provincial courts have concurrent jurisdiction with the Federal Court of Canada, but these courts do not provide the extraordinary remedies of the arrest <em>in rem</em> and the sistership arrest. These remedies are only exercised by the Federal Court of Canada which has admiralty and shipping jurisdiction, as well as jurisdiction over aviation cases. In fact, the Federal Court of Canada applies federal law. The provincial courts may apply federal law as well as provincial law and have wider jurisdiction. Put in other terms, in the Federal Court of Canada, based on the facts as presented, one may exercise as extraordinary recourses the Mareva Injunction, the arrest <em>in rem</em> and sistership arrest. In the Quebec courts, one can only invoke the seizure before judgment, and in the Common Law courts, in Ontario and the other provinces of Canada, one can invoke the Mareva Injunction. When we receive a new case, one of the first questions we ask ourselves is which court should be used to institute the action.</p>
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<h4>JURISDICTION IN GENERAL</h4>
<p>The second major aspect to consider from a practical point of view is that of jurisdiction. In the year 2001, the Canadian Parliament enacted section 46(1) of the <em>Marine Liability Act</em>, S.C. 2001, ch. 6, which states as follows:</p>
<blockquote><p>46(1). If a contract for the carriage of goods by water to which the Hamburg Rules do not apply provides for the adjudication or arbitration of claims arising under the contract in a place other than Canada, a claimant may institute judicial or arbitral proceedings in a court or arbitration tribunal in Canada that would be competent to determine the claim if the contract has referred the claim to Canada, where</p>
<ol>
<li style="list-style: lower-latin;">the actual port of loading or discharge, or the intended port of loading or discharge under the contract, is in Canada;</li>
<li style="list-style: lower-latin;">the person against whom the claim is made resides or has a place of business, branch or agency in Canada; or</li>
<li style="list-style: lower-latin;">the contract was made in Canada.</li>
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<p>This section grants the Canadian court (usually the Federal Court of Canada) jurisdiction to hear a claim for the carriage of goods by water if any of the conditions contained in section 46(1)(a), (b) or (c) are met, and this despite a forum selection clause found in the bill of lading that states otherwise. The typical forum selection clause that we see in the back of bills of lading reads as follows:</p>
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<blockquote><p>“1) Any claim or dispute whatsoever arising in connection with the carriage under the Bill of Lading shall exclusively be governed by English law and determined by the High Court of London.”</p></blockquote>
<p>This conflict between the statutory provision and the jurisdiction clause has given rise to anti-suit injunctions between English and Canadian Courts. I will not burden you with an analysis of the jurisprudence, but suffice it to state that the latest jurisprudence, in Canada, in the <em>Mazda Canada Inc.</em> v. <em>Mitsui OSK Lines et al</em> 2007 FC 916 case has stated that Canada’s public policy has been enunciated at section 46, and if one of the factors of section 46 is present, this constitutes a real and substantial connection with Canada and little weight should be given to the jurisdiction clause. This case distinguishes the case of <em>Magic Sportswear Corp.</em> v. <em>OT Africa Line</em> [2007] 2 F.C.R. 733. In Canada, we do not suffer the repercussions of the infamous US Supreme Court SKY REEFER American decision (<em>Vimar Seguros y Reaseguros S.A</em>. v. <em>M/V SKY REEFER</em>, 1995 AMC 1817).</p>
<h4>TIME BAR</h4>
<p>In shipping matters, Canada is subject to the Hague-Visby Rules, with a potential in the future to adopt the Hamburg Rules. Therefore, the time for suit is one year from delivery of the goods or the date when the goods should have been delivered.</p>
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<h4>NOTICE OF LOSS</h4>
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<p>On Notice of Loss , the Hague-Visby Rules read in part as follows:</p>
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<blockquote><p>Article III, 6. Unless notice of loss or damage and the general nature of such loss or damage be given in writing to the carrier or his agent at the port of discharge before or at the time of the removal of the goods into the custody of the person entitled to delivery thereof under the contract of carriage, such removal shall be <em>prima facie</em> evidence of the delivery by the carrier of the goods as described in the bill of lading.</p>
<p>If the loss or damage is not apparent, the notice must be given within three days of the delivery of the goods.</p>
<p>The notice in writing need not be given if the state of the goods has, at the time of their receipt, been the subject of joint survey or inspection.</p></blockquote>
<h4>LIMITATIONS OF LIABILITY</h4>
<p>The Hague-Visby Rules at Article IV(5)(a) state that unless the nature and value of the cargo have been declared by the shipper before shipment and inserted in the bill of lading, neither the carrier nor the ship shall in any event be or become liable for any loss or damage to or in connection with the cargo in an amount exceeding 666.67 SDRs per package or unit (One SDR is about CAN$1.68 these days) or 2 SDRs per kilogram of gross weight of the cargo lost or damaged, whichever is the higher. Notice that this limitation is obviously higher than the COGSA limitation, and many an American claimant has tried in various cases to have Hague-Visby apply instead of COGSA.</p>
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<p>The total amount recoverable is calculated by reference to the value of the cargo at the place and time in which the cargo is discharged or should have been so discharged from the ship in accordance with the contract.</p>
<p>The value of the cargo is fixed according to the commodity exchange price, or, if there is no such price, according to the current market price, or if there is no commodity exchange price or current market price, by reference to the normal value of the cargo of the same kind and quality.</p>
<p>Where a container, pallet or similar article of transport is used to consolidate cargo, the number of packages or units enumerated in the bill of lading as packed in such article of transport are considered as the package or unit. So if a container contains 500 boxes of shoes, each box is considered a unit or package.</p>
<p>I have dealt with the limitations of liability provided by the Hague-Visby Rules, but there is also the limitation on the other side of the spectrum based on the <em>Convention on Limitation of Liability for Maritime Claims</em>, 1976, with the 1996 Protocol. This limitation is invoked by the shipowner when the loss of cargo is of a large amount. Under both the Hague-Visby Rules and the 1976 Limitation Convention the Defendant owner and charterer will be entitled to limit their liability, if any, unless it is “proved that the loss resulted from their personal act or omission, committed with the intent to cause such loss, or recklessly and with knowledge that such loss would probably result”. The burden falls upon the cargo interests, and it is a most difficult burden to overcome.</p>
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<p>The <em>Convention on Limitation of Liability for Maritime Claims</em> provides for a Fund which is calculated on the tonnage of the ship and places a global limitation on liability with respect to all cargo claims arising from the same incident.</p>
<h4>AIR CARRIERS</h4>
<p>As for Air Law, Canada has enacted the <em>Carriage by Air Act</em>, R.S.C. 1985, c. C-26 and amendments, which incorporates the Warsaw Convention and its Protocols, including the Montreal Convention.</p>
<p>For cargo claims, the action against the carrier must be brought within two years from the date of the arrival or expected arrival of the aircraft, or from the date on which the carriage stopped. The limitation is 19 SDRs per kilogram. The SDR today is about CAN$1.68, or about CAN$31.92 per kilo.</p>
<p>This limitation is very difficult to break as the argument of wilful misconduct does not exist any longer on account of the Montreal Convention. The Federal Court of Canada as well as the local provincial courts have concurrent jurisdiction.</p>
<p>As for notice of loss, a written complaint must be provided within 14 days from the date of receipt of the cargo. In case of delay, a written notice must be provided within 21 days from the date on which the cargo should have arrived.</p>
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<h4>MOTOR CARRIERS</h4>
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<p>Transportation by Road is governed by the laws of each province in Canada. If the contract of carriage was entered into between the trucker and shipper in the province of Quebec, the time bar is three years from the date of delivery of the property or from the date on which it should have been delivered. In Quebec, according to the Transport Act, coupled with the Regulation respecting the requirements for bills of lading, the carrier limits its liability to $4.41 per kilogram, unless the shipper has declared a higher value on the face of the bill of lading. This limitation may be broken if gross negligence is proved.</p>
<p>The notice of damage, loss or delay to goods, setting out the origin, destination and date of shipment and the estimated amount of the claim, must be given within 60 days after delivery, or if there is no delivery, within 9 months from the date of shipment. The final claim statement with proof of payment of the freight, must be submitted within nine months following the date of the shipment.</p>
<p>I wish to deal briefly with armed hijacking to steal containers and their cargoes, generally mineral commodities, such as copper anodes or similar cargoes.</p>
<p>The defence of <em>cas fortuit</em> or fortuitous event, or <em>force majeure</em> or superior force is invariably raised.</p>
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<p>In the Quebec Superior Court decision of <em>Nexans Canada Inc. and ACE-INA Insurance</em> v. <em>Papineau International</em>, EYB 2008-150992, Mrs. Justice Helene Poulin cited Article 2049 of the<em> Civil Code of Quebec</em>, which holds a transporter liable unless it can prove that there was superior force <em>force majeure</em>.</p>
<p>Insofar as armed hijacking is concerned, the doctrine and the jurisprudence would require three characteristics before an event would be considered a <em>force majeure</em>. The first is unforeseeability, the second is an irresistible event and the third is external causes with the same characteristics.</p>
<p>The Court went on to state that transporters are obliged to take all the normal precautions required to avoid a theft. They should not in any way help facilitate a theft or commit a fault. Therefore, hijacking in itself is not an automatic defence for a transporter if there is any element of negligence on the part of the trucker.</p>
<h4>RAIL CARRIERS</h4>
<p>Railways are governed by the <em>Canada Transportation Act</em>, S.C. 1996, c-10. Section 137 of the Act provides that a railway company shall not limit or restrict its liability to a shipper or the movement of traffic except by means of a written agreement or confidential rate contract signed by the shipper or by an association or other body representing shippers. In the case of <em>Boutique Jacob</em> v. <em>Canadian Pacific Railway et al</em>, 2006 FC 217, the Federal Court of Canada at first instance held that the CPR could not limit its liability because it had not entered into a “written agreement or confidential rate contract signed by the shipper or by an association or other body representing shipper” to that effect.</p>
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<p>This case dealt with a derailment, and the Plaintiff sued the NVOCC, freight forwarder, ocean carrier OOCL and Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR). The only party found liable by the Federal Court, Trial Division, was CPR, and it could not limit its liability. The case went to appeal after interventions were presented by the P &amp; I Clubs and ocean carriers. The Federal Court of Appeal, <em>Canadian Pacific Railway Company and Boutique Jacob Inc. and Zim, Maersk et al</em>, 2008 FCA 85, by some strange logic, held that the ocean carrier, namely OOCL was the “shipper” and not the actual shipper, namely Boutique Jacob. The Court stated OOCL contracted directly with CPR by way of a confidential rate contract, and it was OOCL that handed over the container to CPR in Vancouver. Thus there was, as required by section 137, a written agreement between the railway carrier, CPR and the “shipper” OOCL. However, this Agreement was not signed. The Court went on to state that the confidential rate contract permitted the rail carrier to limit its liability to an amount equal to the liability of the steamship company pursuant to the ocean bill of lading which in this case was US$2.00 per pound of gross weight of the goods lost or damaged. Thus, the railway carrier was condemned to pay a miserly amount of CAN$1,432.89, instead of CAN$71,550.47 claimed. The Court finally concluded that the railway carrier could nonetheless rely on the Himalaya clauses found in the OOCL bills of lading as well as the NVOCC bill of lading.</p>
<p>The case has not been appealed to the Supreme Court of Canada. As a consequence, and in practical terms, the time to sue a railway carrier is one year, and notice of loss should be similar to that provided against an ocean carrier.</p>
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<h4>SECURITY</h4>
<p>Security will only be required if a Mareva Injunction is sought, and as security for costs if the Plaintiff is a foreign legal entity. Security for costs is usually kept by Plaintiff’s lawyer in his trust account after it is requested, and only used if there is an Order as to costs against the Plaintiff. Otherwise, it is returned to the Plaintiff.</p>
<h4>HANDLING OF CASES</h4>
<p>Cases in the Federal Court of Canada, whether maritime, aviation, against railroads or motor carriers, or based on a through bill of lading or a combined transport bill of lading, are heard on an average of two years after the institution of the action, if no settlement is reached. The same applies with actions instituted in the provincial courts. This is simply a rule of thumb. In the Federal Court of Canada, judges get actively involved in case management, promote and encourage mediation/neutral evaluation to provoke settlements. This is usually instigated by the case management judge. In the provincial court, in Quebec, one of the parties can request that a judge be appointed to mediate the dispute. Mediation is founded on the good faith of all the parties who must show a desire to reach a settlement. It is an interesting procedure because the parties themselves set out their initial positions. The lawyers are left in the background.</p>
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<h4>LAWYER’S FEES</h4>
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<p>The fees are decided between the lawyer and the client. In our jurisdiction, if there is agreement between the lawyer and the client, the lawyer may act on a contingency fee basis, no cure/no pay plus disbursements. The percentage for cargo claims is usually 25% of the recovery plus disbursements. There may be various variants of this formula, all depending on the negotiations between the lawyer and client. I have seen higher percentages, lower percentages, percentages based on a base recovery at one rate, and lower percentages as the settlement figure is higher. I have seen a combination of percentage and an hourly rate plus disbursement. In some cases, the lawyer can request that he be paid at a lower hourly rate, but if there is a recovery, he may agree to an agreed percentage and reimburses the amount received on an hourly basis. If there is no agreement on a no cure/no pay arrangement, the lawyer will ask to be paid strictly on an hourly basis. Hourly rates in Canada range from $250 to $650 per hour depending on the experience or seniority of the lawyer. In practice, the Plaintiff’s lawyer generally acts on a contingency fee basis. Defendant’s lawyer will generally act on a hourly fee basis. If the referral is from the U.S.A., it is usually on the basis of 2/3 of 1/3 of any recovery.</p>
<h4>COSTS</h4>
<p>As for costs, a distinction has to be made between judicial and extra judicial costs. Judicial costs are those provided in the procedural rules for each court. These are the costs to institute an action, to hold examinations on discovery, etc. These are payable by the losing party. The lawyer’s fees constitute extra- judicial costs which must be paid by the client, whether the client wins or loses. The losing party generally does not pay the fees of the winning party and its lawyer as may be the case in England. Only exceptionally, the Federal Court will award solicitor-client costs, but in cases where the lawyer has been outrageously abusive. This occurs very rarely.</p>
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<h4>DISBURSEMENTS</h4>
<p>Disbursements are generally quite low. These include the initial cost to institute the legal proceedings, the bailiff’s fees to serve the proceedings, the cost of stenographers at examinations on discovery, taxis to Court, long distance charges. Everything that has to be paid out of pocket by the lawyer. If the case is adjudicated by the Court, a part of these disbursements may form part of the costs awarded to the winning party. Disbursements are always for the account of the client, and are payable by the client whether the lawyer is acting on a contingency fee bases or an hourly rate basis.</p>
<h4>INTEREST</h4>
<p>Pre-judgment interest is awarded as an integral part of damages in accordance with the civilian principle of restitutio in integrum. Such damages run from the date of delivery, in the case of damaged cargo and from the date the cargo should have arrived, in the case of late or short delivery. The rate of pre- judgment interest is left to the court’s discretion. If the prime commercial rate is claimed and proven, it is awarded.</p>
<p>Post-judgment interest on both the damage award and the pre-judgment interest is governed by the law of the province in which the cause of action arises, or where it does not arise in a province at a rate the Federal Court considers reasonable. Such interest is sometimes awarded at the legal rate of 5% <em>per annum</em> as stipulated by the <em>Canada Interest Act</em>, R.S.C. 1985, ch: I-15, sect. 3. The court nevertheless retains discretion to select a different rate, such as the average commercial prime rate.</p>
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<h4>CONCLUSION</h4>
<p>In our practice, we are often faced with multimodal transport. For example, cargoes are transported from the Far East to West Coast ports, such as Vancouver and Prince Rupert, British Columbia and from there carried by rail to rail yards in Ontario, and from there by truck to Quebec or the Maritime provinces. There are freight forwarders involved, NVOCCs, actual ocean carriers, their owners and charterers. There are through bills of lading, waybills, combined transport bills of lading, ocean, rail, air, truck waybills and bills of lading.</p>
<p>Canada has not ratified the Hamburg Rules.</p>
<p>As for the Rotterdam Rules, Canada has expressed serious reservations with this Convention. For one, Canada is a “volume contract” jurisdiction.</p>
<p>As stated in a recent article by Alcantara, Oland, Professors Tetley, Ramberg, Johansson and others entitled <em>Particular concerns with regard to the Rotterdam Rules</em>, Article 80 of Rotterdam is the most objectionable part according to many commentators. Article 80 allows parties to derogate their obligations under Rotterdam in “volume contracts” which are extremely broadly defined.</p>
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<p>Nevertheless, today we have to manage with the little we have, and the strategy we adopt is the infamous “shotgun approach”. We sue everyone that may have a contractual or tort link with the shipper and/or consignee. We usually are forced to issue proceedings within the year after delivery of the cargo, or even nine months after the loss as is the case with some freight forwarders or NVOCCs. In summary, as soon as we obtain the case, we determine immediately the prescription aspect, or suit time applicable to each defendant, and act accordingly. Issues of jurisdiction, applicable law, time extensions, limitation, application of extraordinary measures, etc. are then dealt with, and after that we are left, as Plaintiff’s lawyers, with possible settlement discussions, or mediation, and if this fails, we face the mercy of the Courts, and the wrath of the lawyers for the Defendants.</p>
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		<title>OCEAN CARRIAGE OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES</title>
		<link>https://demanpillet.com/en/ocean-carriage-fresh-fruits-and-vegetables/</link>
		<comments>https://demanpillet.com/en/ocean-carriage-fresh-fruits-and-vegetables/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Tue, 01 Sep 2015 14:15:16 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Benjamin Dubé]]></dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Unclassified]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://demanpillet.com/en/?p=797</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[BY MARC DE MAN AND MATTHEW HAMERMAN Shipping fresh fruits and vegetables overseas in a reefer container is a risk-filled but often unavoidable proposition for traders and wholesalers everywhere. Indeed, many types of fresh produce are volatile commodities that if not held at the correct temperature, not properly humidified or not adequately ventilated (to name...]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p style="text-align: center;" align="JUSTIFY"><strong><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: medium;">BY</span></span></strong></p>
<p style="text-align: center;" align="JUSTIFY"><strong><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: medium;">MARC DE MAN</span></span></strong></p>
<p style="text-align: center;" align="JUSTIFY"><strong><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: medium;">AND</span></span></strong></p>
<p style="text-align: center;" align="JUSTIFY"><strong><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: medium;">MATTHEW HAMERMAN</span></span></strong></p>
<p style="text-align: left;" align="JUSTIFY"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: medium;">Shipping fresh fruits and vegetables overseas in a reefer container is a risk-filled but often unavoidable proposition for traders and wholesalers everywhere. Indeed, many types of fresh produce are volatile commodities that if not held at the correct temperature, not properly humidified or not adequately ventilated (to name just a few potential perils), will arrive damaged at their destination. The following is a brief overview of certain issues that carriers and cargo interests wrestle with when litigating cargo claims involving fresh fruits and vegetables.<br />
</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><br />
Typically, when fresh fruits or vegetables are shipped in a reefer container, the shipper places a temperature recorder (known under various names – Sensitech, Ryan or Cox Recorder etc.) within the reefer. Generally, once the container has arrived at its destination, the device is promptly calibrated and, as such, provides interested parties with an indication of what the temperature surrounding the cargo was throughout the duration of the voyage. Often times, to counter these findings, the carrier will supply the printout from the reefer container’s Electronic Data Recorder. This instrument records the temperature of the air entering (“supply air”) and exiting (“return air”) the container on an hourly basis. When it comes to these two temperature recorders, the debate often centers around which of the two provides the most accurate account of the temperature at which the cargo was held, as well as what information can be gleaned from the respective temperature read-outs. Naturally, the carrier will claim that its sophisticated machinery that provides an hourly read-out of the supply and return air garners a more precise idea of the cargo’s temperature. Meanwhile, the cargo interests will posit that that a device that measures the ambient temperature within the container is the better indicator</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: medium;">.</span></span><a class="sdfootnoteanc" href="#sdfootnote1sym" name="sdfootnote1anc"><sup>1</sup></a></p>
<p style="text-align: left;" align="JUSTIFY"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: medium;"> In addition, a new theory relating to cargo damage has begun to emerge in recent years, which has served to further muddy the waters with regards to the above-mentioned debate: the theory of the damaged baffle plate. Prior to being returned to use, every refrigerated container undergoes a pre-trip inspection (PTI). While the PTI is mostly meant to verify the condition of a container&#8217;s refrigeration machinery, it should also take into account the container&#8217;s structural condition and the condition of any fittings, to generally insure the container&#8217;s cargo and transport worthiness. Frequently however, the condition of such fittings escapes attention. Primarily amongst these is the baffle, or kick plate. The baffle plate is located in the extreme forward end of a container and is designed to direct the incoming temperature-treated air backwards, along the ducted floor. Damage to a baffle plate usually involves its partial displacement and misalignment and causes gaps through which the air is misdirected; usually upwards. This can provoke a process of short-cycling, sending air directly up to the outflow and thereby, giving incorrect data on the overall temperature in the container to the sensors, which will influence the adjustment of the temperature of the incoming air. A displaced baffle plate can also reduce the strength of the incoming air flow, backward along the container&#8217;s floor.</span></span><a class="sdfootnoteanc" href="#sdfootnote2sym" name="sdfootnote2anc"><sup>2</sup></a></p>
<p style="text-align: left;" align="JUSTIFY"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: medium;"> Another common problem that faces cargo interests when fresh produce is shipped via reefer container is container power-downs. When this occurs, no power is supplied to the container and, consequently, cooling air ceases to circulate within the container. While it is common for these to take place when the container is transshipped, power-downs of varying length often occur at different points throughout transit. As a result, the meaning of these power-downs is usually a hotly debated topic amongst solicitors. Recently, Canadian courts, namely the Cour du Québec as well as the Quebec Court of Appeal have shed some light on this debate. In </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><i>Les Courtiers Breen Ltée v. Mediterranean Shipping Company S.A.</i></span></span><a class="sdfootnoteanc" href="#sdfootnote3sym" name="sdfootnote3anc"><sup>3</sup></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><i>,</i></span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: medium;"> the Cour du Québec ruled that power interruptions of eleven and nine hours in length were sufficient to cause damage to the cargo, once the consignee had proven that the said cargo had been loaded in good order and condition. The Quebec Court of Appeal affirmed this decision</span></span><a class="sdfootnoteanc" href="#sdfootnote4sym" name="sdfootnote4anc"><sup>4</sup></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: medium;"> in finding that despite the power-downs occurring at a time when the shipment was not subjected to the </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><i>Hague-Visby Rules</i></span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: medium;">, Mediterranean Shipping Company S.A. (“MSC”) could not rely on clauses in the terms and conditions of the bill of lading to free itself of liability for breaching the contract of carriage. Accordingly, MSC was found liable for the damages to the shipment in question. As such, this decision demonstrates that power-downs of reefer containers can trigger liability on the part of a carrier. What remains at issue is how long the container need be shut down in order to engage the liability of the carrier. The commodity being shipped will likely play a role in determining this factor.</span></span></p>
<p style="text-align: left;" align="JUSTIFY"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: medium;"> A further concern for cargo owners is what has come to be known as the prohibition of suit clause, sometime referred to as a “circular indemnity clause”. A clause of this nature can generally be found in the terms and conditions of a bill of lading, as it will generally prohibit the “merchant” (shipper, consignee etc.) from suing the carrier’s (i.e. the entity that issues the bill of lading, which could be either a freight forwarder or actual carrier) subcontractors. This type of clause will come into effect when cargo interests book their shipment through a freight forwarder. If the freight forwarder issues a bill of lading, cargo interests will likely appear on its face as the shipper/consignee. However, they will likely be absent from the actual carrier’s bill of lading, with the freight forwarder appearing as shipper/consignee. If the shipment arrives damaged, a prudent cargo owner will institute proceedings against both the freight forwarder and the actual carrier. However, as cargo interests booked their shipments through a freight forwarder, actual carriers will attempt to rely on the circular indemnity clause found in the freight forwarder’s bill of lading to escape liability. Though this type of clause has generally been upheld by the courts, some notable scholars posit that it violates Art III (8) of the </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><i>Hague-Visby Rules,</i></span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: medium;"> which govern most bills of lading.</span></span></p>
<p style="text-align: left;" align="JUSTIFY"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: medium;"> While the above is far from an exhaustive list, it serves to demonstrate that when fresh fruits and vegetables are shipped overseas in a reefer container, many risks arise. Accordingly, problems that arise in determining the party responsible for the damages are issues that will undoubtedly remain hotly debated amongst litigants.</span></span></p>
<div id="sdfootnote1" style="text-align: left;">
<p><span style="font-size: small;"><a class="sdfootnotesym" href="#sdfootnote1anc" name="sdfootnote1sym">1</a><sup></sup> For more on this issue, see “From Market to Market”, by Peter Davidson, Brisset Bishop S.E.N.C., p.3-4.</span></p>
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<div id="sdfootnote2" style="text-align: left;">
<p><span style="font-size: small;"><a class="sdfootnotesym" href="#sdfootnote2anc" name="sdfootnote2sym">2</a><sup></sup> Richard Mannion, marine surveyor, contributed to this section.</span></p>
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<p><span style="font-size: small;"><a class="sdfootnotesym" href="#sdfootnote3anc" name="sdfootnote3sym">3</a><sup></sup> 2010 QCCQ 583</span></p>
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<div id="sdfootnote4">
<p style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: small;"><a class="sdfootnotesym" href="#sdfootnote4anc" name="sdfootnote4sym">4</a><sup></sup> 2011 QCCA 2173</span></p>
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		<title>EL DERECHO MARITIMO Y EL DERECHO PROCESAL</title>
		<link>https://demanpillet.com/en/el-derecho-maritimo-y-el-derecho-procesal/</link>
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		<pubDate>Wed, 26 Aug 2015 16:42:48 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Benjamin Dubé]]></dc:creator>
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		<description><![CDATA[Por Marc de Man Estimados colegas y amigos INTRODUCCION Cuando empecé a ejercer, como un joven abogado, en la ciudad de Montreal, Canadá, tuve la gran suerte de ayudar a uno de los más distinguidos abogados canadienses especializado en litigios. Su nombre era Maître François Mercier. Una día, mientras que estabamos preparando un caso para juicio,...]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p style="text-align: center;"><strong>Por </strong><strong>Marc de Man</strong></p>
<p>Estimados colegas y amigos</p>
<p><strong>INTRODUCCION</strong></p>
<p>Cuando empecé a ejercer, como un joven abogado, en la ciudad de Montreal, Canadá, tuve la gran suerte de ayudar a uno de los más distinguidos abogados canadienses especializado en litigios. Su nombre era Maître François Mercier. Una día, mientras que estabamos preparando un caso para juicio, me dijo lo siguiente: “Marc, el litigio, es un trabajo de cocina!”.</p>
<p>Me quedé asombrado por este comentario.</p>
<p>Hace dos años vi una prelicula maravillosa, que estoy seguro muchos de ustedes han visto. Se llama “Ratatouille”. Se trataba de una rata con grandes talentos culinarios. Remy, la rata, se esconde debajo del gorro de su amigo, Linguini, y lo guia con los ustensilios y los ingredientes a ser añadidos para deliciosas sopas, ensaladas, hors d’oeuvres y platos de resistencia.</p>
<p>Bueno, en la practica del derecho maritimo, me he dado cuenta que el aspecto litigio es como trabajo de cocina. Los ingredientes (especies, ajo, cebolla, oregano, sal, pimenta), los utensilios (cuchillos, tenedor, cucharas), son el equivalente al derecho procesal mientras que los tomates, lechuga, papas, pescado y carne representan el derecho substantivo.</p>
<p><strong>REGLAS PROCESALES INGLESAS Y FRANCESAS</strong></p>
<p>Para comprender este trabajo culinario sobre el derecho procesal, tenemos que remontarnos a los origenes y las bases de las reglas procesales, que se originan en Canadá de las reglas procesales inglesas y francesas, desarolladas con el tiempo.</p>
<p>Lo que tenemos que tener en cuenta es el hecho que en materia de derecho marítimo, las reglas procesales deben ser aplicadas con rapidez y eficacia. Estas reglas tienen que ser flexibles y cualquier elemento que cause demora es sus aplicaciones debe ser evitado. Los buques son muy resbaladisos, particularmente los buques “tramp” y todo tiene que ser aplicado para acelerar la operación del derecho, ambos niveles que sean procesales o sustantivos.</p>
<p>Para comenzar hay que retroceder y consultar a la historia.</p>
<p>En 1759, en la ciudad de Quebec, Canadá, los Ingleses derrotaron a los Franceses en los Llanos de Abraham. Fue una batalla de 20 minutos, pero los Ingleses salieron victoriosos. En el proceso, el general inglés, Wolfe falleció tal como el general francés, el Marques de Montcalm. Pero los franceses de Canadá aunque derrotados, pudieron guardar y mantener sus derechos civiles, de propriedad y de religión. Esto significa que al nivel del derecho procesal y sustantivo, Canadá es una juridicción privilegiada puesto que tiene un sistema derivado de ambos el Common Law ingles y el derecho francés. En la Provincia de Quebec, los sistemas jurídicos de Inglaterra y Francia se armonizan, adoptando el Common Law en ciertas areas y el Código Napoleon, con sus enmiendas, o el derecho civil en otras.</p>
<p><strong>CUATRO RECURSOS PROCESALES</strong></p>
<p>Esta fusión de sistema legales nos ha permitido tener en nuestra juridicción cuatro (4) recursos procesales utilizados en situaciones donde se trata de proteger la reclamación de la parte demandante cuando el deudor, el defensor, o el que debe dinero puede disipar o hacer desaparecer sus bienes, o cuando tiene el temor fundado que al obtener una decisión final del tribunal, no habran suficientes fondos para ejecutar una sentencia o la decisión de la Corte.</p>
<p><strong>1. LA ACCION IN REM</strong></p>
<p>El primer recurso es la Acción in Rem en reclamaciones contra el buque. Esta acción es específicamente otorgada por las reglas procesales de la Corte Federal de Canada que tiene juridicción en materia de derecho marítimo. Esta acción se origina de las leyes procesales de Inglaterra y es una acción directa contra la <em>res</em> (o “la cosa” en Latin) generalmente la nave o el buque.</p>
<p>La ley de la Corte Federal de Canada, en la sección 22 presenta las situaciones cuando la acción in rem puede ser intentada. Este recurso es disponible, inter alia, para los dueños de la carga que han sufrido daños a causa de la no-navegabilidad del buque, para los proveedores de combustibles o los que proveen las necesidades al buque, etc.</p>
<p>Por lo tanto, si un buque entra en la juridicción Canadiense y hay daños considerables a la carga, el dueño de la carga o su asegurador inician una acción in rem en la Corte Federal de Canadá, emitiendo un Statement of Claim (Demanda escrita) acompañado de un Affidavit to Lead Warrant.</p>
<p>El Affidavit to Lead Warrant es revisado por un funcionario de la Corte Federal, y si establece una reclamación prima facie valida contra el buque en el ambito de la sección 22 de la ley de la Corte Federal, el Warrant of Arrest (orden de arresto o arraigo) es emitido por la Corte. No hay ninguna consulta, presentación, o audiencia en frente de un juez. El warrant es notificado sobre el buque por el Sheriff o Marshall. En los viejos tiempos, el Warrant of Arrest (orden de arresto o arraigo) se martillaba con un clavo enorme sobre el mástil de madera del buque, y con una tiza se dibujaba un ancla enredada en su cuerda (fouled anchor) sobre el puente de la nave.</p>
<p>Hoy en día, los mástiles de madera son rarísimos, y el Sheriff o Marshall no trae tiza en su bolsillo. El Sheriff o Marshall toma el scotch tape y pega el Warrant of Arrest en la ventana en frente del timón de la cabina de navegación.</p>
<p>El arrest in rem eficazmente paraliza el buque donde está, y el Warrant of Arrest es liberado, como el buque, solamente cuando este presente garantías que protegen la reclamación. Puede ser una carta de undertaking o un compromiso del Pandi. Estas son generalmente aceptadas, en mi experiencia de 35 años solo he visto dos Pandis declarar quiebra. Siempre pedimos como monto de garantía el daño reclamado mas un tercio 1/3 para cubrir intereses y costos. Otra manera de liberar la nave es con un bail bond, una letra de crédito, garantia bancaria u otra garantía apropriada o un arreglo instantáneo de la demanda. Si no se presenta una garantía, la nave se vende judicialmente.</p>
<p>La acción in rem es específicamente creada para prevenir que la nave escape de la jurisdicción. Al obtener la garantía se puede ejecutar la orden o sentencia de la Corte por intermedio de la garantía.</p>
<p>Esta acción aunque muy útil tiene sus limitaciones. Solo puede ser invocada contra el buque que ha causado el daño. Si el buque he sufrido una colisión, o se encalla, quizas ya no tiene valor. En algunos casos, no se puede obtener una garantía (<em>security</em>) y no se extiende a otros bienes del armador o del deudor.</p>
<p>El aspecto interesante de la Acción in Rem es el hecho que se puede iniciar y establecer casi instantáneamente. Lo habitual es recibir la documentación por telefax o correo electrónico. Contrariamente a prerequisitos en otras juridicciones, no se necesita obtener y presentar un poder judicial formal para actuar, y tampoco hay necesidad de presentar un depósito o garantía. Solo más tarde en los procedimientos se podria pedir de la parte demandante la garantía para costos (<em>security for costs</em>), pero no en el momento del arresto.</p>
<p>Los procedimientos de arresto o la acción in rem pueden ser iniciados a cualquier hora del día o de la noche. En un caso particular, tuve que iniciar el arresto a las 2 de la mañana. La Corte Federal tiene un número de urgencia, una vez contactado y despertado el funcionario de la Corte, este último llama a la Policía Montada que abre las puertas de la Corte, y esto permite la emisión del <em>warrant of arrest</em> u orden de arresto emitido por el funcionario de la Corte.</p>
<p>Por razones obvias, este recurso es utilizado generalmente contra los buques <em>tramp</em> y tratamos de evitar su uso contra los barcos <em>liner</em>, aunque se utiliza contra los liners en circunstancias excepcionales.</p>
<p><strong>2. SISTERSHIP ARREST O EL ARRAIGO O ARRESTO DEL BUQUE HERMANO</strong></p>
<p>Este procedimiento fue introducido en Canadá en febrero, 1992. En la sección 43(8) de la ley de la Corte Federal se extiende la acción in rem a cualquier buque que al momento de intentar la acción sea propiedad beneficiada (beneficially owned) por la persona que es el dueño del buque o que es sujeto de la acción.</p>
<p>La Corte Federal de Canadá ha interpretado el término <em>beneficial owner</em> y lo asimilo al termino <em>registered owner</em> o propriedad registrada. Esta interpretación limita de una cierta manera este procedimiento. Si se presenta suficiente prueba por afidavit que establece una propiedad común, la Corte podría ampliar su interpretación. Este procedimiento ha sido muy útil contra flotas navieras. No se necesita presentar una garantía o un poder judicial para invocarlo.</p>
<p><strong>3. MAREVA INJUNCTION</strong></p>
<p>Es una creación del procedimiento del Common Law, que solamente apareció en Inglaterra en 1975.</p>
<p>Los criterios de base que se deben establecer para obtenerla son los siguientes:</p>
<ul>
<li>El Demandante tiene que tener una causa de acción contra el Demandado en la jurisdicción de la corte;</li>
<li>Como decidido por la Corte Suprema de Canadá, el Demandante tiene que establecer un caso sólido <em>prima facie</em> sobre los méritos;</li>
<li>El Demandante tiene que establecer que el Demandado tiene bienes en la jurisdicción de la Corte;</li>
<li>El Demandante tiene que establecer un riesgo real que el Demandado va a disponer de sus bienes, o disiparlos de la jurisdicción. Este criterio es el corazón de la Mareva Injunction;</li>
<li>El Demandante sería incapaz de ejecutar la sentencia si el Demandado disipa sus bienes;</li>
<li>El Demandante tiene que presentar una garantía por daños y perjuicios eventuales.</li>
</ul>
<p>La Mareva Injunction (que en Inglaterra se llama ahora <em>Freezing Order</em>, pero en Canadá todavía (“Mareva Injunction”) no opera como un embargo de propiedad, pero es un recurso <em>in personam</em> que prohibe al dueño de bienes de deshacerse de ellos. Se le dice al Demandado &#8211; “si tienes bienes, los tienes que mantener en tu patrimonio”. Para ejecutar esta orden, las personas que detienen los bienes, tal como los bancos o terceras partes, tienen que aparecer. Esto significa que la Injunction tiene un efecto directo sobre los terceros, como los bancos, instituciones financieras, que son notificados de la injunction y que tienen que mantener los bienes que están descritos en la orden. La tercera parte que está al corriente de la injunction, y que no se somete a la orden es penalizada por desacato al tribunal (contempt of court).</p>
<p>La Mareva Injunction se puede introducir en todas las cortes canadienses de juridicción de Common Law, que incluye la Corte Federal de Canadá que tiene jurisdicción sobre la materia marítima.</p>
<p><strong>4. SAISIE AVANT JUGEMENT</strong></p>
<p>El equivalente al Mareva Injunction en el sistema de Derecho Civil, o derivado del Codigo Procesal en Francia se llama <em>la saisie avant jugement</em> en la Provincia de Quebec. Es parecido al embargo preventivo que existe en Uruguay y en varios paises de América Latina.</p>
<p>El Codigo de Procedimiento Civil de la Provincia de Quebec define este procedimiento en el articulo 733 de la manera siguiente:</p>
<p>El Demandante puede, con la autorización de un juez, embargar antes de sentencia o decisión de la Corte, los bienes del Demandado cuando hay el temor que sin esta medida el recubrimiento de su deuda esté en peligro.</p>
<p>En Francés:</p>
<blockquote><p><em>Le demandeur peut, avec l’autorisation d’un juge, faire saisir avant jugement les biens du défendeur, lorsqu’il est à craindre que sans cette mesure le recouvrement de sa créance ne soit mis en péril</em>.</p></blockquote>
<p>Hay que notar que en la <em>saisie avant jugement</em>, la parte Demandante no está obligada de presentar una garantía por daños y perjuicios eventuales. Esto se tiene que hacer en la Mareva Injunction. La <em>saisie avant jugement</em> es presentada por requisición o <em>writ</em> o <em>bref</em> en las cortes de la Provincia de Quebec, mientras que la Mareva Injunction es solamente factible de presentar en la Corte Federal de Canadá y en las cortes de las otras provincias de Canadá de jurisdicción del Common Law. Finalmente, en ambas casos, en la Mareva y en la <em>saisie avant jugement</em>, es necesario presentar afidavits firmados por la parte Demandante o su representante y hay que introducir estas medidas procesales en frente de un juez. Con el arresto <em>in rem</em> y el <em>sistership arrest</em>, el abogado de la parte Demandante puede introducir el Affidavit to Lead Warrant en frente de un funcionario de la Corte Federal de Canadá, sin la presencia de un juez. Si el arresto o el <em>sistership arrest</em> cae en los parametros que las reglas de la Corte Federal plantea, el arresto es emitido por el funcionario de la Corte Federal. Se necesita un poquito más de una hora para preparar un<em> arrest</em> <em>in rem</em>. Un <em>sistership arrest</em> un poco más, pero la Mareva Injuncion y la <em>saisie avant jugement</em> pueden necesitar varios días de preparación.</p>
<p>Estas son las medidas procesales que la parte Demandante tiene a su disponibilidad en la jurisdicción canadiense en materia de casos marítimos. Evidentemente, estas medidas no son invocadas en cada caso. Una demanda normal con la presentación de un Statement of Claim en la Corte Federal de Canadá podría ser suficiente, o una Demanda de Institución de Acción en la Corte Superior de Quebec, o medida similar en las cortes provinciales del resto de Canadá pueden ser suficientes, dependiendo del caso.</p>
<p>Lo que es importante acordarse es que la Corte Federal de Canadá tiene jurisdicción en todo el país. Por ejemplo, se puede intentar una demanda por pérdida y daños a la carga en la ciudad de Montreal, Provincia de Quebec cuando el buque esté en el puerto de Vancouver, Columbia Britanica. Se puede intentar la acción in rem en Toronto, cuando el buque que se debe arrestar esta en el puerto de Halifax, Nova Scotia.</p>
<p><strong>JURISDICCION CONCURRENTE</strong></p>
<p>Otro aspecto en el nivel procesal es que las cortes provinciales locales tienen jurisdicción concurrente con la Corte Federal de Canadá, pero estas cortes no pueden ser utilizadas para la acción in rem o el sistership arrest. Estas dos acciones solo pueden ser ejercidas por la Corte Federal de Canadá que tiene jurisdicción en materia de derecho marítimo, como de derecho aéreo. En realidad, la Corte Federal de Canadá aplica la ley federal. Las cortes provinciales pueden aplicar la ley federal como la ley provincial y tienen una jurisdicción más amplia. En otras palabras, en la Corte Federal de Canadá, uno puede invocar la Mareva Injunction, el Arrest in Rem y el Sistership Arrest. En las cortes de la Provincia de Quebec, solo se puede invocar la Saisie avant Jugement, y en las cortes de las otras provincias de Canadá, las cortes de Common Law, como en la Provincia de Ontario, o Alberta, solo se puede invocar la Mareva Injuncion. Cuando recibimos un nuevo caso, uno de las primeros aspectos examinados es determinar en que corte se instituye la demanda.</p>
<p><strong>JURISDICCION IN GENERAL</strong></p>
<p>Sobre jurisdicción en general la sección 46(1) del <em>Marine Liability Act</em> de Canada, S.C. 2001, capitulo 6 permite a la parte reclamante bajo un contrato de transporte de carga por mar de iniciar una acción judicial o arbitral en un tribunal de Canadá aunque exista una cláusula de jurisdicción en otra jurisdicción, como Inglaterra, o Estados Unidos, si el puerto de carga o descarga es en Canadá, si la persona contra quien la reclamación es dirigida tiene residencia, o domicilio, filial o agencia en Canadá, o si el contrato de transporte ha sido concluído en Canadá.</p>
<p>En el caso de <em>Mazda Canada Inc.</em> v. <em>Mitsui OSK Lines et al</em>, 2007 FC 916, la Corte Federal ha declarado que es parte de la política pública (<em>public policy</em>) de Canadá que si uno de los factores de esta sección 46 esta presente, esto constituye una conexión real y substancial con Canadá, y muy poca consideración se da a una cláusula de jurisdicción que se encuentra en el conocimiento de embarque.</p>
<p><strong>JUICIO MARITIMO EN CANADA</strong></p>
<p><strong>1. PROCEDIMIENTOS ESCRITOS Y ORALES</strong></p>
<p>Un aspecto muy interesante en mi jurisdiccíon es la mezcla de los procedimientos escritos y orales.</p>
<p>Las demandas son iniciadas por escrito. Las requisiciones preliminares son presentadas por escrito, pero debatidas oralmente en frente del juez basado sobre escritos. La defensa a la demanda y respuesta son escritas, pero los interrogatorios antes del juicio (<em>examinations on discovery)</em> se hacen oralmente, en frente de estenógrafos. Un aspecto de gran importancia es la presentación del <em>affidavit of documents</em>. Cada parte en el litigio debe presentar todos los documentos que sean pertinentes al caso, que sean de su ventaja o no. Esta presentación es acompanada por un afidavit, o declaración bajo juramento presentando todos los documentos disponibles y pertinentes. Este procedimiento obliga a las partes de hacer una presentación global de la prueba (<em>full disclosure of the evidence</em>) y al presentarse por ambas partes provoca muy a menudo un arreglo del caso.</p>
<p><strong>2. INTERVENCION DEL JUEZ</strong></p>
<p>Después de la presentación de los documentos, y los interrogatorios, la Corte Federal empieza a intervenir de manera muy activa. Exige de las partes que presenten una requisición para una conferencia antes de juicio (<em>Requisition for Pre-Trial Conference</em>). En esta conferencia en frente del juez, este juez habitualmente pide la mediación, y tratará de hacer todo lo posible para persuadir a las partes de llegar a un arreglo. Si esto no ocurre, se fija una o varias fechas para juicio o audiencias.</p>
<p><strong>3. EL JUICIO</strong></p>
<p>El juicio se hace oralmente, los abogados se visten con sus togas, sus camisas blancas bien planchadas, sus collares bien almidonados acompañados por el rabat. Gracias a Dios, no hay mas pelucas, pero el abogado tiene que tener una presentación impecable. Lo mismo se aplica al juez, que en la Corte Federal, tiene una toga negra con una banda dorada. La Parte Demandante, a través de su abogado, empieza la audiencia con una breve presentación introductiva (<em>opening statement</em>), el primer testigo tiene que jurar que dirá la verdad y es interrogado. El abogado de la defensa tiene el derecho de contra-interrogar y el abogado de la Demanda puede re-examinar el testigo después del contra-interrogatorio. Todos los testigos pasan por estas tres etapas. Los testigos expertos presentan afidavits antes de la audición en los cuales exponen sus capacidades y experiencia y describen el aspecto técnico sobre el cual aplicarán su pericia. Cuanda el abogado de la parte demandante cierra su prueba, el abogado de la defensa presenta una breve exposición de su defensa, y presenta su primer testigo, que pasa por el interrogatorio, contra interrogación y re-interrogación. Una vez introducida toda la prueba oral y escrita por ambas partes, el abogado de la parte Demandante resume la prueba, analiza los hechos pertinentes y presenta al juez la ley y jurisprudencia aplicables al caso. El abogado de la Defensa hace lo mismo desde su punto de vista, y el juez absorbe todo para la deliberación, y habitualmente emite una decisión bien motivada en aproximadamente trenta días. La decisión puede ser apelada a la Corte Federal de Apelación si hay un error en la aplicación de la ley o un error en la apreciación de los hechos y la ley. La última instancia de apelación es la Corte Suprema de Canadá, pero el caso debe ser de interés nacional para poder acceder a esta corte.</p>
<p><strong>CONCLUSION</strong></p>
<p>Esto es a grosso modo, la situación procesal en la jurisdicción canadiense, en materia de derecho marítimo, estas son las especies, la sal, la pimienta, la salsa que se aplica al derecho sustantivo. La combinación de los dos, como lo hacen Remy y Linguini en la pelicula Ratatouille, puede resultar todo un plato gastronómico jurídico.</p>
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